cubines. However, in this system the status of the official wife was secure,
unlike the tsumadoi [uxorilocal] or mukotori [son-in-law adopted by wife’s
family] marriages of the Heian period, where the wife’s status was precari-
ous” (Wakita, Women in Medieval Japan 38).
The Heian period (794–1185) was a polygamous society; although
one wife was often recognized, albeit informally, as the first among equals
in the stable of wives, that wife’s status was not guaranteed. Frequently,
when a husband stopped visiting, the marriage was dissolved. In contrast,
the existence of the medieval household system rested on the principle
of monogamy (Wakita, Women in Medieval Japan 21). As the patriarchal sys-
tem became solidified, the marriage system changed, too. It shifted from
tsumadoi (uxorilocal) or mukotori (son-in-law adopted by his wife’s family) to
yometori-kon, or patrilocal: “Yometori did not become the general practice
until the medieval period” (Wakita, Women in Medieval Japan 128). In the Tale
of Amewakahiko, the heroine leaves the familiarity of her parents’ home to
Conclusion
249
live in her husband’s household. The story seems to reflect a matrimonial
proclivity to a vililocal arrangement as the heroine moves from her parents’
house eventually to her husband’s house in the sky.
For medieval young women of high society who were restricted in many
ways from moving about, the Tale of Amewakahiko was perhaps a thrilling
adventure story, as the heroine travels into the unknown sky in search of
her husband. The oni–father-in-law who resides in the sky, in a beautiful
residence in serene surroundings, was originally Bontennō (Brahma). But to
the medieval audience, whether the oni resided in the sky or underground
did not seem to matter much, as discussed in chapter 5. Tale of Amewakahiko
is a tale that explains an origin of Tanabata, now the firmly established cus-
toms in Japan.
Decentralized power during the Muromachi period forced traditional
institutions, be it central government or religious establishments, to sustain
their own political and economic viability alone. Clergymen affiliated with
certain sects had to actively propagate the merit of their schools’ survival.
Another conspicuous promotion of a Buddhist school is Tsukumogami ki
(The Record of Tool Specters). Incorporating the folk belief that when sen-
tient beings become very old they turn into oni, the author of Tsukumogami
ki makes insentient beings animated and mischievous when they become
old. The discarded old tools then attack people out of vengeance. Making
the most of puns and parodies, the narrator emphasizes the miraculous
power of Shingon esoteric Buddhism in which even the tools that turned
into oni can be enlightened, let alone ordinary human beings. “If you wish
to know the deepest meaning, quickly escape from the net of exoteric
Buddhism and enter Shingon esoteric Buddhism,” the narrator says. This,
incidentally, could have made people buy new tools.
An examination of oni stories from medieval Japan makes one won-
der what oni are. oni often seem to be used as a kind of political and eco-
nomic tool—to highlight the heroes’ prowess or religious efficacy. When
one considers the nature of otogizōshi, short tales written for the purpose
of both entertainment and moral or religious edification, one understands
their overt and covert pedantic elements. To put someone or an entity in
a positive light, it is easier to cast another (or oni) as a villain. This is per-
haps a universal phenomenon, not necessarily limited to medieval Japan.
In medieval Japan, the oni or disenfranchised entity was defined as real—a
potential threat to allies. The impact on the audience, both oral and tex-
tual, of that time must have been somber indeed. While there are differ-
ences in perception and beliefs as environments have changed, present-
day readers would find some commonalities in the behaviors and beliefs.
250
Conclusion
As Komatsu Kazuhiko writes, medieval tales even speak to contemporary
humanity; that is, to study the oni in Japanese folklore is to study human-
kind ( Yōkaigaku shinkō 12)
nOte
1. For a Japanese text, see Nakada 194–96; for an English translation, see Nakamura ,
Miraculous Stories from the Japanese Buddhist Tradition 194–96.
Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms
a
Bakuya 莫耶 (Ch. Mo Ye)
A 阿
Ban dainagon ekotoba 伴大納言絵詞
Abe no Nakamaro 阿倍仲麻呂
bankoku 蕃国
Abe no Seimei 安倍晴明
bansei ikkei 万世一系
agamono 贖物
Bensei 弁正
Agon 阿含
Bishamonten 毘沙門天
Akazome Emon 赤染衛門
biwa 琵琶
Akiyoshi 秋好
Bonten 梵天
Amaterasu 天照大神
Bontennō 梵天王
Amenomurakumo no tsurugi 天叢雲
bosatsu-kai 菩薩界
剣
Bosuton Bijutsukan Nihon bijutsu no
Amewakahiko 天稚彦
shihō ボストン美術館日本美術
Amewakahiko monogatari emaki 天稚彦
の至宝
物語絵巻
bugei no ie 武芸の家
Amewakahiko sōshi 天稚彦草子
buki no ie 武器の家
Amewakamiko 天稚御子
bukkai 佛界
Annam 安南
Busei (Ch. Wu Cheng) 武成
Anokutara sanmiyaku sannbodai no ho-
bushi 武士
toketachi waga tatsu soma ni myōga
Butchō Sonshō Dhāranī 佛頂尊勝陀
arase tamae 阿耨多羅三藐三菩
羅尼
提の仏たちわが立つ杣に冥加あ
らせたまへ
Anshi
C
安子
Aratarō 荒太郎
Chang’an 長安
Aru tokoro no zenbu Yoshio no Tomo
Chikamatsu Monzaemon 近松門左
no dainagon no ryō o miruko-
衛門
to 或る所の膳部義雄の伴の大
chikushō-kai 畜生界
納言の霊を見る語
Chinjufu shogun 鎮守府将軍
Ashikaga Takauji 足利尊氏
Chion’in wakan rōeishū kenbun 知恩院本
Awata no Mahito 粟田真人
和漢朗詠集見聞
Ayuwang Temple 阿育王寺
Chōgen 重源
Azuma kagami 吾妻鏡
Chōju daisen’ō nyorai 長寿大仙王如
来
Chōtoku 長徳
B
chūdai hosshō 中台法性
Bai Juyi 白居易
Chūgaishō 中外抄
Bao Zhi 宝誌
chūnagon 中納言
252
Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms
Chūnagon Ki no Haseo no ie ni
Emperor Murakami 村上天皇
arawaruru inu no koto 中納言紀
Emperor Reizei 冷泉天皇
長谷雄の家に顕るる狗の語
Emperor Seiwa 清和天皇
Cloistered Emperor
GoShirakawa 後
Emperor Shenzong 神宗
白河法皇
Emperor Shōkō 称光天皇
Emperor Shōmu v聖武天皇
Emperor Sujin 崇神天皇
D
Emperor Sutoku 崇徳天皇
dai ni no shizen 第二の自然
Emperor Takakura 高倉天皇
Daiba bon 提婆品
Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇
Daidairi 大内裏
Emperor Wu 武帝
daihonzan 大本山
Emperor Wu of Liang 梁武帝
Daiitoku 大威徳
Emperor Xiaozong 孝宗
Daijō-itokuten 太政威徳天
Emperor Xuanzong (Jp. Gensō) 玄宗
Daiku to Oniroku だいくとおにろく
皇帝
dairokuten no maō 第六天の魔王
Empress Shōshi 彰子 (中宮) (or
Daoshou 道州
Jōtōmon-in)
Dazai shōgen 太宰少監
Empress Shōtoku 称徳天皇 (or
Dazaifu 太宰府
Empress Kōken 孝謙天皇)
dengaku 田楽
Empress Teishi 定子 (皇后)
Dengyō Daishi 伝教大師
Empress Wu Zetian (Jp. Busokuten) 武
denshi-byō 伝尸病
則天
En Shito 袁司徒 (Ch. Yuan Situ)
Endō, line 遠藤流
e
engaku-kai 縁覚界
Eastern Han 東漢
Engishiki 延喜式
Ebisu 恵比寿
Enryakuji 延暦寺
eboshi 烏帽子
edo 穢土
Eiga monogatari 栄華物語
f
Eiseibunko 永青文庫
Fu Sōshin ki 付捜神記
Eishin 栄心
Fudō myōō 不動明王
Eiso 永祚
Fudō riyaku engi 不動利益縁起
emaki 絵巻
Fuji Daibosatsu 富士大菩薩
Emperor Antoku 安徳天皇
Fujiwara no Akihira 藤原明衡
Emperor GoHanazono 後花園天皇
Fujiwara no Hidesato 藤原秀郷
Emperor GoIchijō 後一条天皇
Fujiwara no Hōshō (or Yasumasa) 藤
Emperor GoKomatsu 後小松天皇
原保昌
Emperor GoReizei 後冷泉天皇
Fujiwara no Hōshō gekka rōtekizu 藤
Emperor GoSuzaku 後朱雀天皇
原保昌月下弄笛図
Emperor GoToba, Retired 後鳥羽院
Fujiwara no Kaneie 藤原兼家
Emperor Ichijō 一条天皇
Fujiwara no Kintō 藤原公任
Emperor Ingyō 允恭天皇
Fujiwara no Korechika 藤原伊周
Emperor Jinmu 神武天皇
Fujiwara no Kosemaro 藤原巨勢麻呂
Emperor Keikō 景行天皇
Fujiwara no Michikane 藤原道兼
Emperor Konoe 近衛天皇
Fujiwara no Michinaga 藤原道長
Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms
253
Fujiwara no Michitaka 藤原道隆
gochi 五智
Fujiwara no Michitsuna 藤原道綱
Gōdanshō 江談抄
Fujiwara no Morosuke 藤原師輔
gohō dōji 護法童子
Fujiwara no Motokata 藤原元方
Gojō 五常
Fujiwara no Munetada 藤原致忠
Goshū 梧楸
Fujiwara no Sanekane 藤原実兼
Goshūgen otogi bunko 御祝言御伽文庫
Fujiwara no Sanenari 藤原実成
GoShūi wakashū 後拾遺和歌集
Fujiwara no Sanesuke 藤原実資
Gōzanze myōō 降三世明王
Fujiwara no Sumitomo 藤原純友
gozu 牛頭
Fujiwara no Tadachika 藤原忠親
Gukanshō 愚管抄
Fujiwara no Tadazane 藤原忠実
gunji kizoku 軍事貴族
Fujiwara no Takaie 藤原隆家
gusokukai 具足戒
Fujiwara no Tameie 藤原為家
Gyokuyōshū 玉葉集
Fujiwara no Tokihira 藤原時平
Fujiwara no Tomoakira 藤原知章
Fujiwara no Yasumasa no ason nusubito
h
no Hakamadare ni au koto 藤原
Hachikazuki はちかづき
保昌の朝臣盗人の袴垂に値ふ語
Fujiwara no Yorimichi
Hachiman sanjo 八幡三所
藤原頼通
Hakamadare 袴垂
Fukū Kongō 不空金剛
Hakamadare, Sekiyama ni shite sorajini o
Fukū Sanzō 不空三蔵
shite hito o korosu koto 袴垂関
Funaokayama 船岡山
山に於て虚死をして人を殺す語
Furuna 富留那
Hakudō 伯道
Fushiminomiya Haruhito 伏見宮治仁
Hakui (Ch. Boyi) 伯夷
Fushiminomiya Sadafusa 伏見宮貞成
Hanayo no hime 花世の姫
Fusō ryakki 扶桑略記
hanayone 花米
Fuyusame 冬雨
Hankai (Ch. Fan K’uai) 樊膾
harakake 腹掛け
G
Haruyoshi 春好
Hase Kannon 長谷観音
gaki-kai 餓鬼界
Hase Temple 長谷寺
Gan Bao 干宝
Hasedera genki 長谷寺験記
Gan Jiang 干将
Haseo zōshi 長谷雄草紙
Ganjin (Ch. Jianzhen) 鑑真
Heian 平安
Gao tang fu 高唐賦
Heiji Disturbance 平治の乱
Gaun nikkenroku 臥雲日件録
Heike monogatari 平家物語
Genbō sōjō Tō ni watarite Hossō o
Henge daimyōjin 変化大明
tsutaeru koto 玄肪僧正唐に亘り
Higekiri 鬚切
て法相を伝ふる語
hijō 非情
Genji monogatari 源氏物語
Hijō jōbutsu emaki 非情成仏絵巻
Genji no chakuryū 源氏の嫡流
Hikime 匹女
Genji no yurai 源氏のゆらひ
Hiko imasu no miko 日子坐王
Genpei War 源平合戦
Hikoboshi 彦星
Genshin 源信
Hikohohodemi no Mikoto emaki 彦火火出
gesaku 戯作
見尊絵巻
go 碁
Hin River (Ch. Pin) 頻川
254
Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms
hiragana ひらがな
J
Hirohira, Prince 広平親王
Jakengokudai 邪見極大
hitogata 人形
Ji denshibyō hiden 治伝屍病秘伝
Hiyoshi Sannō Shrine 日吉山王神社
Jie drum 羯鼓
Hizamaru 膝丸
Jien 慈円
Hizen 肥前
jigoku-kai 地獄界
Hokekyō jikidanshō 法華経直談鈔
jikidanmono 直談物
Hokekyō jurin shūyōshō 法華経鷲林拾
jikkai 十界
葉鈔
Jikkinshō 十訓抄
Hoki naiden 簠簋内伝
Jikokuten 持国天
Hoki shō 簠簋抄
jimyō shicchi 持明悉地
Hokkai taishōō nyorai 法界体性王
jin-kai 人界
如来
Jokunsho 女訓書
Honchō shinsen den 本朝神仙伝
Jōkyū Disturbance 承久の乱
hongaku shisō 本覚思想
Jōkyūki 承久記
<
br /> honji 本地
jorō 女郎
Hosokawa Gracia Tama 細川ガラシ
jōrō 上臈
ャたま
jorōgumo 女郎蜘蛛
Hossō sect 法相宗
Jorōgumo no kotowari 絡新婦の理
hyakki yagyō 百鬼夜行, 百器夜行
jōruri 浄瑠璃
hyakki yagyō emaki 百鬼夜行絵巻
Jōtōmon-in 上東門院 (or Empress
hyaku hachi no bonnō 百八煩悩
Shōshi)
Juchūkō 十炷香
i
Jukeini 寿桂尼
jūni innen 十二因縁
Ibukiyama 伊吹山
Jūni-sama 十二様
Ichijō Kanera 一条兼良
Jūnishinshō 十二神将
Ichiren nyūdō 一連入道
Jūrasetsunyo 十羅刹女
igo 囲碁
Imagawa bunka 今川文化
Imagawa Yoshimoto 今川義元
k
Intoku honshōō nyorai 因徳本性王
Kachō Fūgetsu 花鳥風月
如来
kagura 神楽
Inuyasha 犬夜叉
Kaguraoka 神楽岡
In’yōzakki 陰陽雑記
Kaifūsō 懐風藻
iro 色
Kaikaku 戒覚
Ise monogatari 伊勢物語
iteki
Kaiō 懐王 (Ch. King Huai)
夷狄
Iwashimizu Hachimangū
kairyūō 海龍王
岩清水八
kami (deity) 神
幡宮
Izumi Shikibu
kami (hair) 髪
和泉式部
Izumo fudoki
Kan’ei shoke kakeizu-den 寛永諸家家系
出雲風土記
図伝
Kanhasshū tsunagiuma 関八州繋馬
Kanmon nikki 看聞日記
Kannon 観音
Japanese and Chinese Names and Terms
255
Kannon kyō 観音経
Kitano tenmangū tenjin 北野天満宮
Kanpaku denka 関白殿下
天神
Kanshō (Ch. Gan Jiang) 干将
Kitayama 北山
Kanzeon bosatsu fumonhon 観世音
Kiyohara no Munenobu 清原致信
菩薩普門品
Kōbō Daishi 弘法大師
Kasen’en 迦栴延
Kōbō daishi gyōjō ekotoba 弘法大師行状
Katori-bon 香取本
絵詞
Katsuraki 葛城
Kobun sensei 古文先生
Kawachi Genji 河内源氏
Kōchi 広智
Kawatake Mokuami 河竹黙阿弥
Kochō 胡蝶
kegai 化外
Kōen 皇円
Kegon 華厳
Kōfuku-ji 興福寺
Keiun 慶運
Kōhō 康保
kenai 化内
Koikawa Harumachi 恋川春町
Kenbunkei rōeishū kochūshakubon 見聞系
Kojidan 古事談
朗詠集古注釈本
Kojiki 古事記
Kengyū 牽牛
Seven Demon Stories from Medieval Japan Page 39