6. Shakabpa, One Hundred Thousand Moons, 1:361.
7. Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho (Fifth Dalai Lama), za hor gyi bande ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho’i ‘di snang ‘khrul pa’i rol rtsed rtogs brjod kyi tshul du bkod pa du kU la’i gos bzang/The Good Silk Cloth, the Play of Illusion, Setting Forth the Biography of Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho, the Monk of Za hor (Lhasa: Tibetan People’s Printing Press, 1991), 1:155ff. Hereafter, this title is referred to as Fifth Dalai Lama, Good Silk Cloth.
8. Fifth Dalai Lama, Good Silk Cloth, 1:197–198.
9. Ibid., 1:194.4–11.
10. The author would like to thank Janet Gyatso for raising this provocative point. For a thorough analysis of this text, see Samten Karmay, Secret Visions of the Fifth Dalai Lama: The Gold Manuscript in the Fournier Collection (London: Serindia, 1988).
11. A bodhisattva is an advanced practitioner of Buddhism who has approached the level of a buddha’s insight without actually completing the soteriological objective of liberation. Such a figure is thought to reincarnate repeatedly in order to serve other sentient beings. Such altruistically motivated spiritual heroes populate the imagination of Mahyna Buddhism, particularly in Tibet. The Dalai Lamas are regarded as emanations of the bodhisattva Avalokitevara, the embodiment of perfect compassion.
12. Hereafter, I will use square brackets to indicate page numbers in the Fifth Dalai Lama’s Song of the Queen of Spring.
13. Tsong kha pa (1357–1419) is regarded as the founder of the dGe lugs school.
14. I explore acts of compassionate violence found in the Fifth Dalai Lama’s Song of the Queen of Spring in an earlier and overlapping version of this chapter: Derek F. Maher, “The Rhetoric of War in Tibet: Toward a Buddhist Just War Theory,” Journal of Political Theology 9:2, 2008, 179–191. In that article, I argue that the Dalai Lama is playing off canonical narratives about sanctified violence committed by the Buddha in his previous lives, a paradigm that is elaborated in a variety of jtaka tales about the Buddha’s previous births and in stras taught by the Buddha.
15. Rupert Gethin, “Buddhist Monks, Buddhist Kings, Buddhist Violence: On the Early Buddhist Attitudes to Violence,” in Religion and Violence in South Asia: Theory and Practice, ed. J. R. Hinnells and Richard King (London: Routledge, 2007).
16. Foucault, “Truth and Power,” in Power/Knowledge, 119.
17. Sans-rGyas rGya-mTSHo: Life of the Fifth Dalai Lama, vol. 4, pt. 1: The Fourth Volume Continuing the Third Volume of the Ordinary, Outer Life Entitled “The Fine Silken Dress,” of My Own Gracious Lama, ag-dBan Blo-bZan rGya-mTSHo, trans. Zahiruddin Ahmad (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1999).
18. Karmay, Secret Visions of the Fifth Dalai Lama.
19. The Fifth Dalai Lama’s connections to the rNying ma lineage have been deftly elaborated by Georges B. J. Dreyfus in his article “The Shuk-den Affair: History and Nature of a Quarrel,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 21.2 (1998): 227–270.
20. Ishihama Yumiko, “On the Dissemination of the Belief in the Dalai Lama as a Manifestation of the Bodhisattva Avalokitevara,” Acta Asiatica 64 (1993): 44.
21. Karmay, Secret Visions of the Fifth Dalai Lama; and Yumiko, “Dissemination of the Belief in the Dalai Lama as a Manifestation of the Bodhisattva Avalokitevara.”
22. Shakabpa, One Hundred Thousand Moons, 1:429–430.
23. Anne Chayet, “The Potala, Symbol of the Power of the Dalai Lamas,” in Lhasa in the Seventeenth Century: The Capital of the Dalai Lamas, ed. Francoise Pommaret (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 39–52.
24. Anne-Marie Blondeau and Yonten Gyatso, “Lhasa: Legend and History,” in Lhasa in the Seventeenth Century, ed. Pommaret, 15–38.
25. Amy Heller, “The Great Protector Deities of the Dalai Lamas,” in Lhasa in the Seventeenth Century, ed. Pommaret, 81–98.
26. Fifth Dalai Lama, Good Silk Cloth, 1:343–416; Shakabpa, One Hundred Thousand Moons, 1:433–440; and Zahiruddin Ahmad, Sino-Tibetan Relations in the Seventeenth Century (Rome: Instituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1970), 166–191.
NOTES
1. In these two texts, ‘Phags pa elevates Mongol khans, beginning with Chinggis Khan, to the status of Buddhist universal emperors (cakravartin). Similarly, in his Counsels to the Emperor (rGyal po la gdams pa’i rab byed), written in 1275, ‘Phags pa extols Qubilai Khan as “the King of Dharma, the defender of the spiritual power of the All-Mighty Buddha.”
2. A. I. Vostrikov, Tibetskaya tibetoyazychnaya istoricheskaya literatura (Ulaanbaatar, 1960), XVII–XIX.
3. “Khublai Khan and Phags-a Bla-ma,” in Studies in Mongolian History, Culture and Historiography. Collected and edited by Ts. Ishdorji and Kh. Purevtogtokh. Ulaanbaatar: International Association for Mongol Studies. Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History. International Institute for the Study of Nomadic Civilization, 2001, 3:312.
4. Mongol Ulsyn Arvan Buyant Nomyn Tsagaan Tüükh Nert Sudar Orshivoi, in Mongolyn Tör, Erkh Züin Tüükh (Ulaanbaatar: University of Mongolia, 2006), 1:13.
5. Altan Khany Tsaaz, in Mongolyn Tör, Erkh Züin Tüükh, trans. B. Bayarsaikhan into modern Mongolian (Ulaanbaatar: University of Mongolia, 2006), 1:15.
6. Sngags ram pa ngag dbang tse ring skyabs lser skya byings la ma grags pa nye bar mkho ba’i gtam brjed thor bskod pa bzhugs so drin can bla ma sngags ram pa ngag dbang tse ring kyis bsgrigs pa’i brjed bzhugs so. 2 Vols, pp. 7b4/218–8a/219.
7. Bhikkhu Ñnamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans., The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikya (Boston: Wisdom, 1995), 548.
8. For example, the “The Khalkha Regulations of the Yamen” (Yaamny Khalkh Jurmyn Dürem) and “The Khalkha Regulations of the Western Khüree” (Baruun Khüreenii Khalkh Juram), which were enacted in 1709 as customary laws of the Khalkha Mongols, both begin with the following prayer:
Homage to the Guru! May the Dharma blaze strongly, like the vajra-feet of the supreme Lama, the crown-pendant of living beings. May the lives of benefactors who support it be lengthened. May the state and nation prosper! May there not be even the slightest mention of the name of a bad deed! May the mind be peaceful! May pure and good conduct thrive, infinitely flowing forth.
See Mongolyn Tör, Erkh Züin Tüükh, trans. Bayarsaikhan B., 1:53, 88.
9. This legal text was a part of the records of the Ministry of the All-Governing Court of the Bogdo Khan State, entitled The Records of Actions Followed by All According to Special Orders and Established by Many Ministries, Starting from the First Year of the State Supported by All, which consisted of sixty documents.
10. See Charles Bawden, trans., Tales of an Old Lama (Tring: Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1997).
11. Pozdneyev, A. M. Edited by J. R. Krueger. Mongolia and the Mongols. Vols. 1–2. Uralic and Altaic Series, Vol. 61 and 6 1/2. Bloomington: Indiana University Publications, 1971–1977.
12. Bawden, Charles, R. Tales of an Old Lama. Buddhica Britannica Series Continua, Vol. 8. Tring, U.K.: The Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1997.
13. Charles Bawden, The Modern History of Mongolia (London: Kegan Paul International, 1989), 166, 167.
14. Cited from Aleksei M. Pozdneyev’s Sketches of Life of Buddhist Monasteries and Buddhist Clergy in Mongolia, 1887 in Bayarsaikhan, B. Khalkh juram, manjiin tsaazyn bichgüüd, tedgeeriin khoorondyn khamaaral.” Erkh züi, 2–3, 2001.
15. Aggaa Sutta, Cakkavattisinhanada Sutta, Dhammapada, etc.
16. R. E. Emmerick, trans., The stra of Golden Light (Suvaraprabhsottamastra) (Oxford: The Pali Text Society, 2004, 59–65.
17. See Buddhvatasaka-mahvaipulyastra, Mahsatyanirgranthavykaraastra, Bodhisattva-gocaryaviayavikramanirdeastra, Daacakraktigarbhanmamahynastra, Bodhisattvabhmi of the Yogcrabhmi, Ngrjuna’s Ratnvli, Mtceta’s Mahrjakaikalekh.
18. Sh. Bira, “The Worship of Suvaraprabhsottama-stra in Mongolia,” in Studies in Mongolian History, Culture, and Historiography (Ulaanbaatar, 2001), 2:322–331.
NOTES
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br /> 1. Hakamaya Noriaki, Hihan Bukky (Tokyo: Daiz Shuppan, 1990), 297–298.
2. Ibid., 294.
3. Zen at War was published first by Weatherhill in 1997. It is currently available in a second, enlarged, 2006 edition from Rowman & Littlefield. Zen War Stories was published in 2003 by Routledge Curzon.
4. Sugimoto Gor, Taigi (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1938), 178.
5. Ibid., 23–25.
6. Ibid., 62.
7. Ibid., 53.
8. Ibid., 139.
9. Ibid., 19.
10. Ibid., 140.
11. Ibid., 101.
12. Ibid., 99.
13. Ibid., 143.
14. Ibid., 152.
15. Ibid., 153–154.
16. Ibid., 160–161.
17. Ibid., 164.
18. Ibid., 167.
19. D. T. Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1959), 111–127.
20. Ibid., 111.
21. Sugimoto, Taigi, 192.
22. Ibid., 219.
23. Ibid., 195.
24. Ibid., 182.
25. Ibid., 182–183.
26. Ibid., 254.
27. Ibid., 255–256.
28. Ibid., 256–257.
29. Quoted in Yokoi and Victoria, Zen Master Dgen: An Introduction with Selected Writings (New York: Weatherhill, 1976), 62. The four bodhisattva practices as explained by Dgen are (1) “giving offerings,” i.e., sharing both material and spiritual wealth with others, (2) “loving words,” i.e., addressing all beings with compassion and affection, (3) “benevolence,” i.e., devising ways to help others, and (4) “identification,” i.e., making no distinction between oneself and others. For further discussion, see Yokoi and Victoria, Zen Master Dgen, 61–62.
30. David Loy, “What’s Buddhist about Socially Engaged Buddhism?” available at http://www.zen-occidental.net/articles1/loy12-english.html, accessed March 29, 2007.
31. Rahula Walpola, What the Buddha Taught, 2nd ed. (New York: Grove Press, 1974), 66.
32. Quoted in Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture, 114.
33. Irving Babbitt, trans., The Dhammapada (New York: New Directions, 1965), 22.
34. Bernard Faure, The Rhetoric of Immediacy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991), 57.
35. Quoted in Victoria, Zen at War, 103. Note that Ishihara Shummy was the editor in chief of the pan-Buddhist magazine Daihrin (Great Dharma Wheel) and therefore exerted influence well beyond the st Zen sect with which he was affiliated.
36. Ibid.
37. Thomas Cleary, The Japanese Art of War (Boston: Shambhala, 1991), 119.
38. Maurice Walshe, trans., Thus Have I Heard: The Long Discourses of the Buddha (London: Wisdom, 1987), 63–64.
39. Quoted in Kenneth Chen, Buddhism in China (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964), 357.
40. Demiéville, “Le bouddhisme et la guerre,” Choix d’études Bouddhiques (1929–1970), 296.
41. Quoted in Yokoi and Victoria, Zen Master Dgen, 163.
42. Ibid., 165.
43. Ibid., 161.
44. For a brief critique of these three rulers, see the second edition of Zen at War, 196–199, 201, and 212.
45. Peter L. Berger, The Social Reality of Religion (New York: Penguin, 1973), 53.
NOTES
1. Holmes Welch, Buddhism under Mao (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972), 1.
2. Guangwu Lo, The Outline of Great Events of Religious Works in New China (Beijing: Huawen Publication Society, 2001), 2
3. Lo, Outline of Great Events of Religious Works in New China, 3 . Holmes Welch gave a different interpretation, in which he quoted from Juzan’s report after he had listened to the brief on Zhou’s speech: “The government in its cooperation with religion is after political, not ideological conformity. Every religion should stay within its proper confines” (Welch, Buddhism under Mao, 3). This is the second-hand translation from the later report of Juzan. See Juzan, Collections of Juzan (Nanjing: Jiansu Guji Publication Society, 2000), 2:713
4. The meaning of patriotism has varied in different social, political, and geographic contexts throughout its long history of use. An interesting discussion about its changes is in Mary Dietz’s “Patriotism: A Brief History of the Term,” in Patriotism, ed. Igor Primoratz (New York: Humanity, 2002), 201–215.
5. There are similarities between Chinese nationalism and patriotism in modern Chinese history; see Yongnian Zheng, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 87–95.
6. Peichao Li, Historic Development of Patriotism of Chinese Nation (Wuhan: Hubei Jiaoyu Publication Society, 2001), 22–24
7. Such fears and worries already existed before 1949. In some areas, Communists had already carried out land reform to reduce rents, and monks and nuns who used to possess large amounts of temple lands had to either give up their possessions or reduce their rents; otherwise, they would be persecuted and punished as counterrevolutionaries.
8. Richard Bush Jr., Religion in Communist China (Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1970), 15. All public areas outside of any religious premises are available for atheistic and antireligious activities.
9. Chang Chih-i, “A Correct Understanding and Implementation of the Party Policy Concerning Freedom of Religious Belief,” Minzu tuanjie (Unity of Nationalities) (Bejing: Minzu Publication Society, Apr. 1962), 2–5. Translated in Union Research Service 28 (Aug. 31, 1962): 295, here cited by Bush, Religion in Communist China, 18.
10. Welch, Buddhism under Mao, 1.
11. Burton Kaufman, The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 31.
12. Jialu Xu, ed, Daily History of the People’s Republic of China (Chengdu: Siquan Renmin Publication Society, 2003) ; Yongnian Zheng, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 476–477.
13. Xue Yu, Buddhism, War, and Nationalism: Chinese Monks in the Struggle against Japanese Aggressions, 1931–1945 (London: Routledge, 2005), 143–148.
14. Juzan, Collections of Juzan, (Nanjing: Jiansu guji chuban she, 2000), 2:706–708 . An English translation of the summary of the letter can also be found in Welch, Buddhism under Mao, 94–96.
15. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.6 (1951): 30 . This news was quoted from People’s Daily, January 8, 1951. Holmes Welch translated Xiandai Foxue as Modern Buddhism. It seems that he understood foxue , Buddhist studies, as equivalent to fojiao , Buddhism. It was rather sensitive at the time to use the term Buddhism in the title of a Buddhist journal. See Welch, Buddhism under Mao, 11–17.
16. . The committee was later renamed as the Committee of Buddhist Circles in Beijing for Resisting America and Assisting Korea
17. It was reported by the Xinhua News Agency that about 80 percent of the total number of monks and nuns from about 400 temples in Beijing participated in the parade. As one of the leading monks, Xiuquan, said, “For hundreds of years, we monks did not have the right of parading. Now, we are liberated. Chairman Mao treats us as members of the people’s family so that we can participate in the parade.” Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.6 (1951): 30
18. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.6 (1951): 30
19. Part of the telegram to Chairman Mao goes like this:
Since the liberation of Beijing, we Buddhists of four groups have studied new revolutionary theories. Combining the Buddhist ideas of national protection and patriotism in connection with internationalism, we all have taken part in the campaign of Resisting America and Assisting Korea. … We Buddhists of four groups solemnly pledge a vow to you: Under your leadership, we shall intensify our studies, enhance our political consciousness, and work harder in productive activities. We shall follow [Buddhist?] doctrines, endeavor for lasting peace and resist the invasion war. Endowed with the spirit of great courage, we shall fight to the death against American imperialists who are the deadly enemies of the people.
/> Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.6 (1951): 30
20. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.6 (1951): 31
21. Buddhist activities in this area can be found in a number of works, such as Walpola Rahula, The Heritage of the Bhikkhu: A Short History of the Bhikkhu in Educational, Cultural, Social, and Political Life (New York: Grove, 1974); Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Yu, Buddhism, War, and Nationalism; and
22. Juzan, “On Buddhist Patriotism,” Xiandai foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies)1.11 (1951): 4
23. The original record of this event can be found in Taisho 2 (152):653.
24. The original source can be found in Taisho 50 (2059):340b, although, according to its context, it was originally supposed to show the supernatural power of Gunabhadra that he could predict the future.
25. Juzan, “On Buddhist Patriotism,” 4
26. Their activities in Hunan and Guilin were full of military spirit. See Yu, Buddhism, War, and Nationalism. 143–149.
27. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies)1.3 (1950): 27
28. Juzan, “On Buddhist Patriotism,” 4–5
29. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 2.1 (1951): 23 and 24
30. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.7 (1951): 7
31. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 4 (1954): 16 . The English translation is quoted from Welch, Buddhism under Mao, 278–279.
32. Yiliang, “Patriotic Issues of Four Groups of Buddhists,” Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.11 (1951): 6–7
33. Xiandai Foxue (Modern Buddhist Studies) 1.8 (1951): 35 . The translation is from Welch, Buddhism under Mao, 277.
34. Jialu Xu, Daily History of the People’s Republic of China, 2:190–192 . Meanwhile, on June 2, 1951, an editorial in the People’s Daily called for a campaign to have all Chinese people take patriotic oaths.
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