88. Trumbull, History of the Discovery of America, 146–47.
89. Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 85.
90. On alliance with Tecumseh, see David Agee Horr, ed., Indians of Illinois and Northwestern Indiana (New York: Garland Publishing, 1974), 30.
91. “Indians Defeated,” Franklin Herald (Massachusetts), Dec. 29, 1812.
92. Gillum Ferguson, Illinois in the War of 1812 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 82–83; on Edwards’s attack, see Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 108–109; William D. Walters, Jr., The Heart of the Cornbelt: An Illustrated History of Corn Farming in McLean County (Bloomington: McLean County Historical Society, 1997), 6; on the Sauk, see Temple, “Indian Villages of the Illinois Country,” 165; on Barbour’s attack, see John Lewis Thomson, Historical Sketches of the Late War, between the United States and Great Britain (Philadelphia: John Bioren Printer, 1816), 57; Wagner, The Rhoads Site, 30, 32. The attacked encampment was at the upper end of Peoria Lake (to the northwest).
93. Temple, “Indian Villages of the Illinois Country,” 168.
94. On the brutalities of midwestern Indian removal, see Susan Sleeper-Smith, “Resistance to Removal: The ‘White Indian,’ Frances Slocum,” in Enduring Nations: Native Americans in the Midwest, ed. R. David Edmunds (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008), 109–23; on 1803 as the critical removal year for Shawnees and Delawares, see John P. Bowes, Exiles and Pioneers: Eastern Indians in the Trans-Mississippi West (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 17; on removal as ethnic cleansing, see Gary Clayton Anderson, Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014).
95. There were two treaties in 1809, signed at Fort Wayne and Vincennes. Message from the President of the United States Transmitting a Copy of a Treaty, Concluded with the Kickapoo Tribe of Indians (Washington, DC: A. and G. Wat, Printers, 1810).
96. “Illinois Lands,” The Illinois Emigrant (Shawneetown, IL), Aug. 21, 1819; Herring, Kenekuk, 21.
97. “Treaty with the Kickapoo Indians,” St. Louis Enquirer, Dec. 8, 1819.
98. Aron, American Confluence, 204.
99. Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 129.
100. George Vashon to Secretary of War John A. Eaton, Oct. 27, 1829, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824–81, St. Louis Superintendency, 1824–1851, Roll 749 (Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Service, 1956).
101. The Vermillion band surrendered their Indiana-Illinois land at Fort Harrison on Aug. 30, 1819. Because they were on friendly terms with their white neighbors, “the treaty failed to specify immediate removal to the west.” But Secretary of War Calhoun said the Kickapoos and other Indians should be removed beyond the Mississippi, “where a more extensive scope is afforded for the indulgence of the barbarous propensities and habits.” Mecina (or Elk Horn), the leader of a Prairie band, said he did not have to leave because he’d never signed the treaty; Herring, Kenekuk, 22. On settling to the east and the Castor Hill treaty, see Nielsen, The Kickapoo People, 34–35. On the location of the Prairie and Vermillion bands, see Stull, Kiikaapoa, 194–96.
102. “More Indian Treaties,” New-York Spectator, April 22, 1833.
103. On seizure, see Charles Callender, Richard K. Pope, and Susan M. Pope, “Kickapoo,” in Bruce G. Trigger, vol. ed., Northeast, vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978), 656–67.
104. William Clark to the Secretary of War, Aug. 12, 1831, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824–81, St. Louis Superintendency, 1824–1851, Roll 749 (Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Service, 1956).
105. Stewart, A Standard History of Champaign County, 93.
106. G. S. Hubbard to Gov. Clark, Dec. 9, 1833, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824–81, St. Louis Superintendency, 1824–1851, Roll 750 (Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Service, 1956).
107. Edmunds, “A History of the Kickapoo Indians in Illinois,” 130, 134–35, 141, 146.
108. On traveling to the spirit world, see Latorre and Latorre, The Mexican Kickapoo Indians, 197; on burial practices and spirits, Hoad, Kickapoo Indian Trails, 31, 101.
109. Thomas Forsyth, “An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Sauk and Fox Nations of Indians Tradition,” in The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region to the Great Lakes, ed. Emma Helen Blair, vol. 2 (1911; New York: Kraus Reprint, 1969), 183–245.
110. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 54.
111. “Witnessed End of Urbana’s Indian,” Urbana Daily Courier, March 9, 1916.
112. A. V. Pierson, “Livingston and McLean County Indians,” 1913, document held by the McLean County Historical Society, Bloomington, Illinois.
113. The Biographical Record of Champaign County, Illinois, 182.
114. “Story of a Buried Treasure,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 16, 1887.
115. “The Glorious Fourth,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 5, 1887.
116. Tim Mitchell, “Kickapoo Powwow Draws Thousands,” Champaign News-Gazette, May 23, 1999; Jacqueline C. Vermaat, “History of the Grand Village of the Kickapoo Park” (A with Honors Projects, paper 27, Parkland College, 2011), http://spark.parkland.edu/ah/27, accessed Sept. 11, 2018.
117. Scott Richardson, “Tribal Reunion Returns to Kickapoo Park near LeRoy,” pantagraph.com, June 6, 2007; Tim Mitchell, “Kickapoo Powwow Draws Thousands,” Champaign News-Gazette, Oct. 12, 2006.
118. “Illinois, Welcome the Kickapoo Home,” http://www.geocities.com/soawing/kicklong.html [inactive], accessed July 20, 2007. For more on Salazar, see Melissa Merli, “Kickapoo Powwow Showcases Traditions,” Champaign News-Gazette, Oct. 12, 2006.
Chapter 2: Meat in the Middle: Converging Borderlands in the U.S. Midwest
1. Urbana Clarion, Aug. 4, 1860.
2. “Cirsium arvense—Canada Thistle,” Illinois Farmer, June 9, 1864, 169.
3. History of Champaign County, Illinois, 120.
4. History of Champaign County, Illinois, 855.
5. “Mexicans Are Coming,” Urbana Daily Courier, May 13, 1909.
6. “Twin City Amusements,” Urbana Courier, Dec. 9, 1909.
7. “Urbana Woman Flees Mexico,” Urbana Courier, March 16, 1912.
8. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Robert Michael Morrissey, Empire by Collaboration: Indians, Colonists, and Governments in Colonial Illinois Country (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).
9. On the Midwest as a place in the middle of a horizontal map, see François Furstenberg, “The Significance of the Trans-Appalachian Frontier in Atlantic History,” American Historical Review 113 (June 2008): 647–77; Clarence Walworth Alvord, The Illinois County, 1673–1818, 1922 (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1965), 326; Andrew R. L. Cayton and Susan E. Gray, “The Story of the Midwest: An Introduction,” in The American Midwest: Essays on Regional History, ed. Andrew R. L. Cayton and Susan E. Gray (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), 1–26; Stephen Aron, American Confluence: The Missouri Frontier from Borderland to Border State (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).
10. On the history of the borderlands idea and later developments in this scholarship—including efforts to expand its geographies—see Ramón A. Gutiérrez and Elliott Young, “Transnationalizing Borderlands History,” The Western Historical Quarterly 41 (Spring 2010): 27–53. On U.S.-Canada borderlands, see, for example, Beth LaDow, The Medicine Line: Life and Death on a North American Borderland (New York: Routledge, 2001); Sheila McManus, The Line Which Separates: Race, Gender, and the Making of the Alberta-Montana Borderlands (Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 2005); John J. Bukowczyk, Nora Faires, David R. Smith, and Randy William Widdis, Permeable Border: The Great Lakes Basin as Transnational Region, 1650–1990 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005). One notable effort to consider the relations between the northern plains and, to a lesser extent, the U.S. Midwest to Mexico is Sterling Evans, Bound in Twine: The History and Ecology of the Henequen-Wheat Complex for Mexico and the American and Canadian Plains, 1880–1950 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2007). On northern and southern border patrolling, see Patrick Ettinger, Imaginary Lines: Border Enforcement and the Origins of Undocumented Immigration, 1882–1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009). For a comparative study, see Benjamin H. Johnson and Andrew R. Graybill, eds., Bridging National Borders in North America: Transnational and Comparative Histories (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010). My conception of borderlands is borrowed loosely from Elliott Young, Catarino Garza’s Revolution on the Texas-Mexico Border (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 7. This definition is based on the premise that the establishment of national borders in North America did not lead to rigidly bordered states in the nineteenth century.
11. Paul Wallace Gates, “Cattle Kings in the Prairies,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 35 (Dec. 1948): 379–412.
12. Dannel McCollum, Essays on the Historical Geography of Champaign County from the Distant Past to 2005 (Champaign: Champaign County Historical Museum, 2005), 20, 51.
13. Paul Wallace Gates, “The Promotion of Agriculture by the Illinois Central Railroad, 1855–1870,” Agricultural History 5 (April 1931): 57–76.
14. On population, see Gates, “The Promotion of Agriculture by the Illinois Central Railroad,” 67; Paul Wallace Gates, “Large-Scale Farming in Illinois, 1850 to 1870,” Agricultural History 6 (Jan. 1932): 14–25.
15. Milton W. Mathews and Lewis A. McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County (Urbana: Champaign County Herald, 1886), passim; J. O. Cunningham, History of Champaign County (1905; reprint, Champaign: Champaign County Historical Archives, 1984), passim; The Biographical Record of Champaign County, Illinois (Chicago: The S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1900), passim.
16. On drives, see Mary Vose Harris, “The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin Harris,” Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1923), 72–101; on farm purchase, Gates, “Large-Scale Farming,” 22; on sales, Gates, “Cattle Kings,” 381–82.
17. Gates, “Cattle Kings,” 381–82; on European sales, see Harris, “The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin Harris,” 89, 92. On the heaviest herd, see “Died Full of Years,” Champaign County Gazette, May 19, 1905, B. F. Harris and Family Vertical File, Urbana Free Library Archives, Urbana, Illinois. On Harris, see also Gates, “Large-Scale Farming,” 14–25.
18. Gates, “Large-Scale Farming,” 24–25. In 1890, there were 1,968,654 beef cattle in the state. By 1900, the number had fallen to 1,373,024, Allan G. Bogue, From Prairie to Corn Belt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century, 1963 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1994), 86.
19. On corn fattening, see James W. Whitaker, Feedlot Empire: Beef Cattle Feeding in Illinois and Iowa, 1840–1900 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1975), 33, 63, 73, 133–38; J. R. Dodge, “Report of the Statistician,” Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1888 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1889), 405–76; on British consumer preferences, see “The Short-Horns of Aberdeenshire, Scotland,” The Breeder’s Gazette, Aug. 31, 1882, 288. On selling steers at two years, rather than three or four years, see Edward Everett Dale, The Range Cattle Industry (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1930), 162; Wilson J. Warren, Tied to the Great Packing Machine: The Midwest and Meatpacking (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2007). On marbling, see Lewis F. Allen, “Short-Horn Cattle,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 73 (Sept. 1886): 537–50.
20. Paul Wallace Gates, Frontier Landlords and Pioneer Tenants (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1945), 23; clippings in Sullivant Family Vertical File, Urbana Free Library Archives, Urbana Illinois; on Alexander, see Gates, “Cattle Kings,” 402–03; Whitaker, Feedlot Empire, 58.
21. Gates, Frontier Landlords, 23; on Alexander, see Gates, “Cattle Kings,” 402–03; History of Champaign County, Illinois, 149.
22. Whitaker, Feedlot Empire, 124.
23. Samuel Plimsoll, Cattle Ships: Being the Fifth Chapter of Mr. Plimsoll’s Second Appeal for Our Seamen (London: Kegan Paul, French, Trübner, and Co., 1890). On the shift from pork, see Roger Horowitz, Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 32.
24. Robert Leslie Jones, History of Agriculture in Ontario, 1613–1880 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1946), 142, 148, 155; Dodge, “Report of the Statistician,” 453.
25. John C. Hudson, Making the Corn Belt: A Geographical History of Middle-Western Agriculture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 145; Margaret E. Derry, Bred for Perfection: Shorthorn Cattle, Collies, and Arabian Horses since 1800 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 24; on buyers, see Christabel S. Orwin and Edith H. Whetham, History of British Agriculture, 1846–1914 (London: Archon Books, 1964), 269.
26. “Illinois Stock Importing Association,” Illinois Farmer, Feb. 1857, 36–37, 45, 47; “The Imported Stock,” Illinois Farmer, June 1857, 143.
27. Bogue, From Prairie to Corn Belt, 88; Clarence H. Danhof, Change in Agriculture: The Northern United States, 1820–1870 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969), 171–72. Shorthorns were popular through the 1880s; Herefords and Angus cattle gained favor thereafter; Warren, Tied to the Great Packing Machine, 185.
28. History of Champaign County, Illinois, 41, 125.
29. Mathews and McLean, Early History and Pioneers of Champaign County, 10, 29.
30. Prairie Farmer’s Reliable Directory of Farmers and Breeders, Champaign County (Chicago: Prairie Farmer, [1917]), 139–41.
31. “The Avondale Herd of Galloway Cattle,” Champaign Daily Gazette, July 24,1900.
32. W. C. Flagg, “The Agriculture of Illinois, 1683–1876,” in Transactions of the Department of Agriculture of the State of Illinois, ed. S. D. Fisher vol. 5 (Springfield: State Journal, 1876), 286–346.
33. Jones, History of Agriculture in Ontario, on 1830s, 127; on duties, 182–83.
34. Michael Hart, A Trading Nation: Canadian Trade Policy from Colonialism to Globalization (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2002), 51; Jones, History of Agriculture in Ontario, 190–91, 193, 225. On speculators, see “Cattle Trade in Canada,” Prairie Farmer, Sept. 16, 1865, 205.
35. Jones, History of Agriculture in Ontario, 279. On 100,000 cattle, see Derry, Bred for Perfection, 25.
36. “Stock Sales and Purchases,” Prairie Farmer, Nov. 5, 1870, 348; “A Trip to Canada,” Prairie Farmer, Aug. 26, 1865, 143; Derry, Bred for Perfection, 25, 45. On the U.S. demand, see also Margaret Derry, Ontario’s Cattle Kingdom: Purebred Breeders and Their World, 1870–1920 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), 47.
37. James Mills, The First Principles of Agriculture (Toronto: The J. E. Bryant Company, 1890), 188.
38. “State Agricultural Associations,” Transactions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society, vol. 1, 1853–1854 (Springfield: Lanphier & Walker, 1855), 10–33.
39. An Official Handbook of Information Relating to the Dominion of Canada (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1897), 7.
40. Derry, Bred for Perfection, 20, 25, 28–30.
41. Jones, History of Agriculture in Ontario, 150; “Items for Breeders and Buyers,” Prairie Farmer, Sept. 2, 1876, 285.
42. United States Consular Reports: Cattle and Dairy Farming, part II (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1888), 541.
43. On Miller, see Derry, Ontario’s Cattle Kingdom, 20–21; Derry, Bred for Perfection, 28–30.
&nbs
p; 44. Joanna R. Nicholls, “The United States Revenue Cutter Service,” Frank Leslie’s Popular Monthly 42 (Oct. 1896): 25. On minimum border control and smuggling, see Reginald C. Stuart, Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 171, 247; Reginald C. Stuart, United States Expansionism and British North America, 1775–1871 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 106–07; Ettinger, Imaginary Lines, 53, 65.
45. On “animals” as the operative category, see Statistics of the Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1864), 99; on dollar values, Commerce and Navigation of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1880), 46; Commerce and Navigation of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1883), 47.
46. “Our Trade with Canada,” Bradstreet’s, Sept. 13, 1890, 586.
47. The Statistical Year-Book of Canada for 1890 (Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1891), 225.
48. Canada: Statistical Abstract and Record for the Year 1888 (Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1889), 264; The Statistical Year-Book of Canada (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau), 1901, 99. These reports provide multiyear tables. American Commerce: Commerce of South America, Central America, and Mexico (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1899), 3351–52. In 1880, about 66 percent of the value of enumerated animals that crossed Canadian borders into the United States was entered in customs houses from New York to Wisconsin; about 33 percent from Maine to New Hampshire, and less than 1 percent from Minnesota to Alaska. See Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1880, 98; see also Commerce and Navigation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1883), xxxiv–xxxv.
49. “The West Liberty Sales,” Prairie Farmer, May 26, 1877, 164; “Was a Great Sale of Shorthorns,” Champaign Daily Gazette, Aug. 9, 1900; “Live Stock Department,” Prairie Farmer, Oct. 14, 1876, 333.
50. On a Canadian buyer in Illinois, see “Great Sale of Short Horns,” Prairie Farmer, Nov. 30, 1867, 344. “Official List of Awards,” Prairie Farmer, Oct. 19, 1867, 242; “Official List of Awards,” Transactions of the Department of Agriculture of the State of Illinois, ed. A. M. Garland, vol. 1 (Springfield: Illinois Journal Printing Office, 1872), 25–60; Transactions of the Department of Agriculture of the States of Illinois, ed. S. D. Fisher, vol. 6 (Springfield: D. W. Lusk, 1878), 45; John P. Reynolds, “State Fair Prospects,” Prairie Farmer, Sept. 5, 1868, 73; Derry, Bred for Perfection, 30.
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