Some myths and legends were converted into ballads and remained in the popular imagination. Though it’s unlikely that anyone believed in Óðinn and Þórr any longer, the gods and heroes remained useful to think with, their stories reminding people of the importance of poetry, of cleverness and courage, of standing up to evil and of laughing in the face of death. Icelandic did not change much as a language over the centuries, and the myths preserved in sagas and poems were still understood. In the seventeenth century, the Codex Regius poems were edited, and translated into Latin; soon knowledge of them was circulating widely through Europe. The first English translations appeared in the eighteenth century (some containing hilarious errors), and the myths and legends of the north were popularized by the Brothers Grimm and Richard Wagner in Germany, and by William Morris and J. R. R. Tolkien in Britain. Now, with such popular cultural phenomena as Game of Thrones (with its constant threat of the Fimbulvetr, the Mighty Winter), Viking Death Metal or the Vikings TV series, whose hero is the very Ragnarr Shaggy-breeches whom we met in Chapter 5, the Scandinavian myths and legends are as vibrant today as at any time since Christianity displaced them from the hearts and minds of the north.
FURTHER READING
The original sources for most of the myths discussed in this book are fairly easy to get hold of in translation.
Snorri Sturluson, Edda, trans. Anthony Faulkes, 2nd edition (London, 2008). This contains The Tricking of Gylfi (Gylfaginning) and other mythological stories.
The Poetic Edda, trans. Carolyne Larrington, 2nd edition (Oxford, 2014). Most of the poems quoted in this book can be found in full here.
Saxo Grammaticus, The History of the Danes, ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson, trans. Peter Fisher (Cambridge, 1979)
Other interesting and readable books about Norse myth include:
Chris Abram, Myths of the Pagan North: Gods of the Norsemen (London and New York, 2011)
R. I. Page, Norse Myths (The Legendary Past) (London, 1990)
Heather O’Donoghue, From Asgard to Valhalla: The Remarkable History of the Norse Myths (London, 2007)
A scholarly but extremely interesting discussion of the myths is:
Margaret Clunies Ross, Prolonged Echoes Vol. 1 (Odense, 1994)
For a very readable account of the history of the Viking Age:
Anders Winroth, The Age of the Vikings (Princeton, 2015)
A more academic work:
Judith Jesch, The Viking Diaspora (London and New York, 2015)
A fascinating account of Scandinavian archaeology and its relation to myth:
Anders Andrén, Tracing Old Norse Cosmology: The World Tree, Middle Earth and the Sun in Archaeological Perspective (Lund, 2014)
Another exploration of Viking-Age archaeology:
Neil Price, The Viking Way: Religion and War in the Iron Age of Scandinavia, 2nd edition (Oxford, 2016)
There are of course numerous retellings for children, by authors such as Roger Lancelyn Green and Barbara Leonie Picard. Best of the bunch is:
Kevin Crossley-Holland, The Penguin Book of Norse Myths: Gods of the Vikings (London, 1996)
A fascinating series of novels based on the Norse myths – the first two for young adults, the last for older readers:
Joanne Harris, Runemarks (London, 2008) Joanne Harris, Runelight (London, 2011) Joanne Harris, The Gospel of Loki (London, 2014)
Two young adult novels based on the heroic legends:
Melvin Burgess, Bloodtide (London, 1999) Melvin Burgess, Bloodsong (London, 2005)
SOURCES OF QUOTATIONS
All translations are the author’s own, except:
page 17: ‘engraved the letters of their own language …’ from Saxo Grammaticus, The History of the Danes, ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson, trans. Peter Fisher (Cambridge, 1979), page 5
page 18: ‘a man … widely believed throughout Europe, though falsely, to be a god’ from Saxo Grammaticus, The History of the Danes, ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson, trans. Peter Fisher (Cambridge, 1979), page 25
page 158: ‘womanish body movements’ from Saxo Grammaticus, The History of the Danes, ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson, trans. Peter Fisher (Cambridge, 1979), page 172
SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS
2 Manx Museum, Isle of Man/Werner Forman Archive 8–9 Map by Martin Lubikowski, ML Design, London 10 Artwork by Drazen Tomic 13 Photo Fred Jones 14, 16 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 18 Photo Gernot Keller 20 Jamtli Historieland Östersund 22 from Olaus Magnus, A Description of the Northern Peoples, 1555 (Hakluyt Society) 23 Bjorn Grotting/Alamy 24 Gerda Henkel Foundation 25 Werner Forman Archive 26, 27 (left) Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 27 (right) Statens Historiska Museet, Stockholm 32 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 33 Interfoto/Alamy 34 from Olive Bray, Sæmund’s Edda, 1908 (The Viking Club) 37 National Museum of Art, Stockholm 39 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 40 from Abbie Farwell Brown, In the Days of the Giants: A Book of Norse Tales, 1902 (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.) 42, 43 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 44 from Martin Oldenbourg, Walhall, die Götterwelt der Germanen, 1905 (Berlin) 45 from Felix Dahn, Walhall: Germanische Götter- und Heldensagen, 1901 (Breitkopf und Härtel) 46 Private Collection 48 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 49 from Olive Bray, Sæmund’s Edda, 1908 (The Viking Club) 50 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 52 Photo Blood of Ox 53 from Mary H. Foster, Asgard Stories: Tales from Norse Mythology, 1901 (Silver, Burdett and Company) 54 from Martin Oldenbourg, Walhall, die Götterwelt der Germanen, 1905 (Berlin) 58 from Karl Gjellerup, Den ældre Eddas Gudesange, 1895 (Copenhagen) 59 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 61 Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 63 Johnston (Frances Benjamin) Collection/Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 64 Det Kongelige Bibliothek, Copenhagen 65 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 67 from Karl Gjellerup, Den ældre Eddas Gudesange, 1895 (Copenhagen) 68 Photo Carolyne Larrington 69 Photo Jan Taylor 71 from Abbie Farwell Brown, In the Days of Giants: A Book of Norse Tales, 1902 (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.) 72 Moesgaard Museum, Højbjerg/Dagli Orti/The Art Archive 73 from A. & E. Keary, The Heroes of Asgard: Tales from Scandinavian Mythology, 1891 (Macmillan) 77 Granger, NYC/Alamy 78 Photo Tristram Brelstaff 82, 83 from Karl Gjellerup, Den ældre Eddas Gudesange, 1895 (Copenhagen) 84 from J. M. Stenersen & Co, Snorre Sturlason - Heimskringla, 1899 85 from Wilhelm Wägner, Nordisch-germanische Götter und Helden, 1882 (Leipzig) 91 from Vilhelm Grønbech, Nordiske Myter og Sagn, 1941 (Copenhagen) 92 from Olive Bray, Sæmund’s Edda, 1908 (The Viking Club) 94 from Karl Gjellerup, Den ældre Eddas Gudesange, 1895 (Copenhagen) 95 from Richard Wagner, The Rhinegold and the Valkyrie, 1910 (Quarto) 96 from Rudolf Herzog, Germaniens Götter, 1919 (Leipzig) 97 Statens Historiska Museet, Stockholm 99 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 100 from Karl Gjellerup, Den ældre Eddas Gudesange, 1895 (Copenhagen) 101 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 103 Photo Researchers/Alamy 104 DeAgostini/SuperStock 106 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 107 from Viktor Rydberg, Our Fathers’ Godsaga, 1911 (Berlin) 108 British Museum, London 110 from Abbie Farwell Brown, In the Days of the Giants: A Book of Norse Tales, 1902 (Houghton, Mifflin and Co.) 114 from Wilhelm Wägner, Nordisch-germanische Götter und Helden, 1882 (Leipzig) 115 from Harriet Taylor Treadwell and Margaret Free, Reading-Literature Fourth Reader, 1913 (Chicago) 121 from Padraic Colum, The Children of Odin, 1920 (Macmillan) 122 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 125 from Karl Gjellerup, Den ældre Eddas Gudesange, 1895 (Copenhagen) 128 from Martin Oldenbourg, Walhall, die Götterwelt der Germanen, 1905 (Berlin) 130 from Padraic Colum, The Children of Odin, 1920 (Macmillan) 132 from Felix Dahn, Walhall: Germanische Götter- und Heldensagen, 1901 (Breitkopf und Härtel) 133 Richard Wagner Museum, Bayreuth/Dagli Orti/The Art Archive 135 Statens Historiska Museet, Stockholm 137 Granger, NYC/Alamy 138, 139 Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo/Werner Forman Archive 140 Illustrat
ion by Dr Dayanna Knight 141, 143 Photo Carolyne Larrington 146 from Richard Wagner, Siegfried & the Twilight of the Gods, 1911 (London) 148 Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo/Werner Forman Archive 159 from Olaus Magnus, A Description of the Northern Peoples, 1555 (Hakluyt Society) 163 from Fredrik Sander, Poetic Edda, 1893 (Stockholm) 165 Yolanda Perera Sanchez/Alamy 167 Photo Gilwellian 168 Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, Reykjavík 170 British Museum, London 175 Photo Berig 181 from Olive Bray, Sæmund’s Edda, 1908 (The Viking Club) 183 Det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi, Copenhagen 184 Manchester Art Gallery/Bridgeman Images 188 Photo Gerry Millar 190 Nationalmuseum, Stockholm 193 from Olive Bray, Sæmund’s Edda, 1908 (The Viking Club) 195 from H. A. Guerber, Myths of the Norsemen from the Eddas and Sagas, 1909 (London) 196 from Finnur Jónsson, Goðafræði Norðmanna og Íslendinga eftir heimildum, 1913 (Reykjavík) 198 from Martin Oldenbourg, Walhall, die Götterwelt der Germanen, 1905 (Berlin) 200 Photo Sven Nilsson
INDEX
All page references refer to the 2017 print edition
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations. Words beginning with Þ are listed after Z.
Ægir, lord of the sea 68, 102–3, 134–35, 187
Æsir, gods 12, 31, 47, 60, 62, 70, 81–83, 86, 93, 98–99, 103, 104, 108, 109, 119, 181, 184, 189, 190, 197–99
Agnarr, son of Geirrøðr 125–27
Alberich, dwarf 95, 147
Angantýr, berserk 158, 169–72
Anglo-Saxons 28, 51, 183
Angrboða, giantess 42, 78, 120
Ásgarðr 12, 43, 52, 63, 64, 81, 93, 94, 98, 99, 107–10, 118, 121
Áslaug 161–4, 163
Ásynjur, goddesses 31, 48, 51–53
Atli, Attila the Hun 145, 148–50
Auðhumla, cow 59, 59
Baldr, god 31, 35, 40–41, 40, 49, 51, 53, 54, 173, 180–87, 183, 191, 194, 198–99
Baldr’s Dreams 17, 180–81
Baugi, giant 98–99, 99
Beowulf 28, 77, 89, 142
berserkir, berserkr 170–71
Bifröst 10, 193
‘blood-eagle’ 166
Böðvildr, Beadohild 76–77
Borghildr 132–33, 136
Bragi, god 50, 51, 187
Brisinga men 46, 47, 73–74, 110, 175, 195
Brünnhilde see Brynhildr
Brynhildr 33, 80, 137, 137, 143–48, 150, 161
Brynhildr’s Ride to Hell 147
Brynjólfur Sveinsson 16
Burr, Borr, sons of 57, 58, 58, 59, 79
coal-biters 156, 166
Codex Regius 16, 17, 122, 192, 201
Denmark, Danes 17, 20, 31, 51, 67, 146, 158
Deor 28, 75, 77, 151
Disc of the World, The 14
dísir 66, 68, 126
dragons 65, 66, 136–42, 160–61, 167, 192, 199
Draupnir, ring 71, 72, 91
Dvalinn 70, 73
dwarfs 38, 70–7, 71, 73, 78, 98, 100, 121, 138, 182, 192
Edda, Poetic 18, 34, 42
Edda, Prose 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 28
eddic poems 16–17, 19, 75, 77, 142, 145–46, 150, 197
Egill Skalla-Grímsson 68
Einherjar 32, 65, 79, 117, 176, 192
Eiríkr the Red 67, 68
Elli, Old Age 114–15
Erik the Red’s Saga 84
Ermanric see Jörmunrekkr
Fafner and Fasolt 95, 95
Fáfnir 95, 95, 136–39, 141–42, 192
Fenrir 24, 26, 42, 48–9, 48, 49, 61, 66, 69, 120–22, 121, 190, 192, 194–95, 195, 199
fimbulvetr 191, 202
First Poem of Helgi, Slayer of Hundingr, The 133, 134–35
Franks Casket 76, 77
Freyja, goddess 17, 31, 43, 44, 45, 46–47, 51, 73–74, 73, 82, 86, 94, 95–96, 106, 108–12, 118, 120, 174–75, 187, 195
Freyr, god 21, 27, 27, 31, 43–45, 45, 47, 71–72, 86, 90–93, 92, 188, 194
Frigg, goddess 27, 31, 35, 51, 53–54, 54, 62, 125–7, 125, 179, 182, 187, 194
Fulla, goddess 51, 53–54, 126
Game of Thrones 202
Gandálfr, Gandalf 70
Garmr, hound 192, 193, 194
Gefjun, goddess 12, 51–52, 52, 62
Geirrøðr, giant 90–91
Geirrøðr, King 125–27
Gerðr, giantess 45, 47, 86, 90–94, 94, 188, 194
Geri and Freki, wolves 31
Giantlands see Jotunheimar
giants, giantesses 13, 14, 25, 31, 37, 41, 52, 58, 62, 63, 64, 71–72, 78, 86, 89–120, 147, 157, 167, 168, 179, 185, 187, 190, 193–97, 201
ginnunga gap 57–58, 64
Gjallar-horn 39, 39, 192
Gjúkungs 142–50, 152, 155
Göndul, valkyrie 174–75
Grani, horse 136, 140, 141, 143, 146
Grímhildr 143–44
Grímnir’s Sayings 67, 125–27
Grímr Shaggy-cheek 167–68
Guðrún 80, 144–51
Gullinbursti 45, 47, 72
Gullveig 81–83, 82
Gungnir, spear 31–32, 71, 194
Gunnarr 143–50, 148, 161
Gunnlöð, giantess 15, 98–101, 100
Gylfi, King 12–13, 14, 51–52
Hallbjörn Half-troll 166–67
Hamðir 139, 151–52
Haraldr Fair-hair, King 18, 166
Hár 12–13, 14
Hárbarðr’s Song 116–19
Hather 159, 160
Heðinn 174–75
Heiðrekr, King 173–74
Heiðrún, goat 65, 65
Heimdallr, god 38–9, 39, 66–67, 110, 192, 194–95
Hel, goddess 42, 63, 64, 68, 69, 120–22, 121, 184–85
Hel, underworld 118, 147, 181–82, 184
Helgi, slayer of Hundingr 80, 133–36
Hermóðr 182–83
Hervör 172–73
Hildr 74, 174–75
Hjaðningavíg 74, 174–76
Hjálmarr 169–72
Hjálmarr’s Death-Song 171
Hliðskjálf, Óðinn’s high seat 31, 92, 125, 126, 189
Hœnir 78–79, 83–84, 106, 119, 138, 198–99
Höðr, blind god 31, 40, 49, 182, 186, 191, 198–99
Högni, Gunnarr’s brother 143–49
Högni, King 174–75
Hrafnhildr 167–69
Hrosshárs-Grani 155–57
Hrungnir 116, 118
Huginn and Muninn, ravens of Óðinn 31
Hundingr, King 134, 136
Hymir, giant 25, 102–5, 116, 187
Hyndla 47, 120
Hyndla’s Song 17, 119–20
Hyrrokin, giantess 182
Iceland 11–18, 20, 49, 66, 117, 196, 201
Iðunn, goddess 50–51, 91, 107–8, 107, 119
Ingeld, King 158–59
Ívarr the Boneless 162–66
Jafnhár 12, 14
Jörð 38
Jörmungandr 68, see also Miðgarðs-serpent
Jörmunrekkr, King of the Goths 150–52
Jötunheimar 64, 102, 109, 111, 116, 118
Jónakr, King 149–50
kennings 15–16, 19, 80, 86, 100
Ketill hængr 166–68
Kvasir, god 43, 83, 98, 189
Lapland, Lapps, Sami 20, 84, 90
Lay of Hamðir 80–81
Lewis Chessmen 108, 108, 170
Líf and Lífþrasir 198
Loki 35, 37, 41–42, 42, 47, 48, 51, 53, 66, 71–74, 72, 78, 79, 84, 90, 92, 96, 104, 106–12, 107, 112–16, 119–22, 138, 182, 185–91, 188, 194–95, 199
Loki’s Quarrel 35, 41, 92, 187–89, 191
Lóðurr 78–79
Magni 38, 118, 199
Man, Isle of 24–26, 140–1
master-builder, the 94–97, 96, 106, 119, 188
mead of poetry 98–102
Miðgarðr 57, 60, 64, 93
Miðgarðs-serpent 25, 37, 38, 42, 68, 104–5, 104, 115, 120–22, 121, 194, 198
Mímir, Mímr 83, 192
Mímir’s Well 10, 32, 38, 3
9, 66, 83, 199
Mjöllnir 37, 38, 71, 72, 90, 105, 109, 113, 115, 118
Morris, William 152, 201
Nanna, goddess 40, 180, 182, 184
Nerthus 44, 47
Nibelungleid 20, 28, 146
Níðhöggr, dragon 65, 66, 199
Níðúðr, King, Niðhad 75
Njörðr, god 43–44, 43, 47, 53, 83–6, 85, 91–92, 187
norns 66, 67, 68, 145
Norway 13–14, 18, 80, 90
Oddr, Arrow-Oddr 168–72
Óðinn, Wotan, god 11, 15, 18, 21, 23–27, 31–36, 32, 34, 37, 38, 47, 48, 49, 51, 54, 57, 59, 62, 64–67, 69, 71–74, 78–86, 83, 95–101, 97, 99, 101, 106, 112, 116–20, 125–29, 128, 132, 132, 135, 138, 139, 142, 157–58, 166, 173, 175, 179–87, 189, 191–95, 198, 199, 201
Óðr 46, 47, 86
On the Loss of Sons 68–69
Orkney 20, 74, 166, 174–75
Oseberg ship 22–23, 23, 183
Otr 138, 140
Óttarr 47, 120
picture-stones 24–25, 25, 135, 140, 140, 141, 175, 200
Poem of Atli 149
ragnarök 13, 26, 32, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 45, 49, 61, 62, 74, 79, 92, 98, 105, 119, 122, 174–76, 179–82, 190–97
The Norse Myths Page 15