“Cessation” (uparati), or abstention from actions that are not relevant either to the maintenance of the body or to the pursuit of enlightenment.
Endurance (titikshâ), which is specifically understood as the stoic ability to be unruffled by the play of opposites (dvandva) in Nature, such as heat and cold, pleasure and pain, or praise and censure.
Mental collectedness (samâdhâna), or concentration, the discipline of single-minded- ness in all situations but specifically during periods of formal education.
Faith (shraddhâ), a deeply inspired, heartfelt acceptance of the sacred and transcendental Reality. Faith, which is fundamental to all forms of spirituality, must not be confused with mere belief, which operates only on the level of the mind.
In some works a threefold path is expounded. A good example is Shankara’s brilliant commentary on the Brahma-Sûtra (1.1.4). Together with the Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gîtâ, the Brahma-Sûtra is considered a philosophical mainstay of the Vedânta tradition. This threefold path has the following means: listening (shra- vana), or reception of the sacred teachings, and considering (manana) their import, as well as contemplation (nididhyâsana) of the truth, which is the Self (âtman).9
Jnâna-Yoga, then, is the disciplined cultivation of the eye of wisdom (jnâna-cakshus), which alone can lead us, in the words of an ancient Sanskrit prayer, “from the unreal to the Real.”10
SOURCE READING 3
Amrita-Bindu-Upanishad
According to tradition, the Amrita-Bindu-Upanishad (written Amritabindûpanishad) is the twentieth in the classic list of 108 Upanishads. The title means “Secret Doctrine of the Seed of Immortality.” The term bindu (lit. “dot” or “point”), here rendered as “seed,” has all kinds of esoteric connotations. In the present context it probably stands for the mind (manas) itself, which is the seed or source of either liberation or bondage. This usage is also found in the Yoga-Kundalî- Upanishad (3.5). The underlying idea is expressed very well in the Viveka-Cûdâmani (“Crest Jewel of Discernment”), ascribed to Shankara. the great preceptor of Vedânta, as follows:
The mind continually creates all the objects that are experienced by oneself as coarse or very fine, [including] the differences of body, estate, stage of life or class, and the [various] qualities, actions, reasons, and fruits [of those actions]. (177)
The mind deludes the unattached form of [pure] Awareness [i.e., the Self] and binds it by means of the ropes of body, organs, and breath, thereby causing it to roam incessantly in the self-inflicted experience of the fruits [of one’s actions] as “I” and “mine.” (178)
Hence the learned who perceive the truth say that the mind is ignorance, by which alone the world is moved about, like cloud banks by the wind. (180)
[Therefore] the seeker of liberation should diligently effect the purification of the mind. When it is purified, liberation is as a fruit in one’s hand. (181)
The position of the Amrita-Bindu-Upanishad is very similar. It too speaks of the mind as the source point of either bondage or spiritual liberation. The clouded mind is forever restless, agitated, unsatisfied, and deluded, obscuring the individual’s true identity as the transcendental Self. Through diligent inner work, notably meditation, the mind can be cleansed of these impurities. When the aspirant finally achieves, in Lord Byron’s words, “a mind at peace with all below,” then consciousness acts like a highly polished mirror reflecting the splendor of the Self’s pure Awareness. The fully controlled mind is said to be “nonexistent” or “destroyed.” since it has lost its characteristic mode of creating unreality or illusion (mâyâ). However, the enlightened person is not mindless in the sense of being unconscious or unmindful. On the contrary, the mind is eclipsed by the superconsciousness of the transcendental Self.
The mind is said to be twofold; pure and impure. The impure [mind is driven by] desire and volition; the pure [mind] is devoid of desire. (1)
The mind alone is the cause of bondage and liberation (moksha) for humans. Attached to objects, [it leads] to bondage; freed from objects, it is deemed [to lead] to emancipation (mukti). (2)
The mind should always be made devoid of objects by the seeker of liberation, since the liberation of the mind devoid of objects is desirable. (3)
When the mind, freed from contact with objects and confined in the heart, reaches nonbeing (abhâva), then that is the supreme State. (4)
[The mind) should be checked until it meets with destruction in the heart. This is gnosis (jnâna), this is meditation (dhyâna). The rest is diffuse speculation. (5)
[The Absolute] is neither thinkable nor unthinkable; it is not thinkable and [yet] thinkable. [When one is] free from partial standpoints, then the Absolute (brahman) is attained. (6)
One should combine Yoga with the sound (svara). One should realize the Supreme as the Soundless (asvara). Through the realization of the Soundless, [there can be] no nonbeing (abhâva). Being is desirable. (7)
That verily is the impartite Absolute, [which is] formless and stainless. Knowing “I am the Absolute,” the Absolute is surely attained. (8)
It is formless, infinite, devoid of cause or precedent, immeasurable and beginningless. Knowing this the sage is liberated. (9)
There is neither dissolution nor origination, neither the bonded nor the realizer (sâdhaka). neither the seeker of liberation nor the liberated. This is the supreme truth. (10)
The Self is to be thought of as singular during waking, dreaming, and sleeping. For him who has transcended the three states [of waking, dreaming, and sleeping], there is no rebirth. (11)
The Elemental Self (bhûta-âtman)11 residing in every being is but one. [It is] seen as unitary and manifold, like the moon’s [reflection] in water. (12)
Just as the space (âkâsha) enclosed in a pot [is not transferred] when the pot is moved, or just as that space is not [affected] when the pot is destroyed-similarly, the psyche (jîva) resembles the space. (13)
Like the pot, (the individuated self] has diverse shapes, breaking apart again and again. Upon its disintegration, one does not know it and yet one knows it eternally [as the Self]. (14)
He who is surrounded by the illusion of verbalization, [blinded] by darkness, does not go to the Source of Plenty (pushkara).12 When the darkness is dispelled, he verily beholds only Oneness (ekatva). (15)
The imperishable (akshara) sound [i.e., the sacred syllable om] is the supreme Absolute. When that has dwindled what [remains] is the Imperishable [itself]. Should the knower desire Self’s peace, he should contemplate that Imperishable (akshara). (16)
The two [forms of] knowledge (vidyâ) to be known are the Sonic Absolute (shabda-brahman) and that which transcends it. He who is familiar with the Sonic Absolute reaches the supreme Absolute. (17)
The sage who, after studying the books, is intent on that [Absolute] through wisdom (Jnâna) and knowledge (vijnâna) should discard all books, even as the husk [is discarded by a person] seeking the grain. (18)
There is but a single color for the milk of variously colored cows—thus he looks upon gnosis as on milk, and upon the [numerous] signs (lingin) as on cows. (19)
Knowledge (vijnâna) abides hidden in every being, as does butter in milk. By means of the mind as chuming-stick, [every] being should constantly chum [this knowledge] within the mind. (20)
Employing the eye of wisdom (jnâna-netra), one should extract the Supreme, as fire [is extracted from wood by friction], remembering “I am that impartite, motionless, tranquil Absolute.” (21)
That which, though dwelling in beings, is the dwelling-place of all beings, favoring all [beings]-that Vâsudeva13 I am. (22)
V. BHAKTI-YOGA-THE SELF-TRANSCENDING POWER OF LOVE
Râja-Yoga and Jnâna-Yoga approach Self-realiza tion chiefly through the transcendence and transformation of the mind, whereas Hatha-Yoga aspires to the same goal through the transmutation of the body. In Bhakti-Yoga, the emotional force of the human being is purified and channeled toward the Divine. In their discipline of ecstatic
self-transcendence, the bhakti-yogins-or bhaktas (“devotees”)-tend to be more openly expressive than the typical râja-yogin or jnânin. The followers of Bhakti-Yoga do not, for instance, shy away from shedding tears of longing for the Divine. In this approach, the transcendental Reality is usually conceived as a supreme Person rather than as an impersonal Absolute. Many practitioners of this path even prefer to look upon the Divine as an Other. They speak of communion and partial merging with God rather than total identification, as in Jnâna-Yoga.
This dualist orientation is beautifully expressed in one of Tukârâma’s devotional songs:
Can water drink itself?
Can a tree taste its own fruit?
The worshiper of God must remain distinct from Him.
Only thus will he come to know God’s joyful love.
But if he were to say that God and he are one,
that joy and love would vanish instantly.
The seventeenth-century saint Tukârâma, about whom more will be said in Chapter 12, was one of the great representatives of the bhakti-mârga, or “way of love/devotion.”
The term bhakti, derived from the root bhaj (“to share” or “to participate in”), is generally rendered as “devotion” or “love.” Bhakti-Yoga is thus the Yoga of loving self-dedication to, and love-participation in, the divine Person. It is the way of the heart. Shândilya, the author of the Bhakti-Sûtra (1.2), defines bhakti as “supreme attachment to the Lord.” It is the only kind of attachment that does not reinforce the egoic personality and its destiny. Attachment is a combination of placing one’s attention on something and investing it with great emotional energy. When we confess that we are attached to various persons, we mean that we enjoy their company or even delight in simply thinking about them, so that when we contemplate their absence or loss, we become saddened. The loss of loved individuals, animals, or even inanimate objects seems to diminish our own being.
It is such energized love-attachment (âsakti) that bhakti-yogins consciously harness in their quest for communion or union with the Divine. At times when we are emotionally estranged from the Ground of existence, we similarly feel diminished in our being. In fact, the masters of Bhakti-Yoga would say that the confusion and unhappiness prevalent in the world are caused by our alienation from the Divine. St. Augustine undoubtedly intuited this when he exclaimed that “our heart is restless until it rests in Thee.”14
In Bhakti-Yoga, the practitioner is always a devotee (bhakta), a lover, and the Divine is the Beloved. There are different degrees of devotion, and the Bhâgavata-Purâna, composed in the ninth century C.E., delineates nine stages. These have been formalized by Jîva Gosvâmin, the great sixteenth-century preceptor of Gaudîya Vaishnavism, in his Shat-Sandarbha (“Six Compositions”) as follows:15
Listening (shravana) to the names of the divine Person. Each of the hundreds of names highlights a distinct quality of God, and hearing them creates a devotional attitude in the receptive listener.
Chanting (kîrtana) praise songs in honor of the Lord. Such songs generally have a simple melody and are accompanied by musical instruments. Again, the singing is a form of meditative remembrance of the Divine and can lead to ecstatic breakthroughs.
Remembrance (smarana) of God, the loving meditative recalling of the attributes of the divine Person, often in his human incarnation-for instance, as the beautiful cowherd Krishna.
“Service at the feet” (pâda-sevâna) of the Lord, which is a part of ceremonial worship. The feet are traditionally considered a terminal of magical and spiritual power (shakti) and grace. In the case of one’s living teacher, selfsurrender is frequently expressed by bowing at the guru’s feet. Here service at the Lord’s feet is understood metaphorically, as one’s inner embrace of the Divine in all one’s activities.
Ritual (arcanâ), the performance of the prescribed religious rites, especially those involving the daily ceremony at the home altar on which the image of one’s chosen deity (ishta-devatâ) is installed.
Prostration (vandana) before the image of the Divine.
“Slavish devotion” (dasya)16 to God, which is expressed in the devotee’s intense yearning to be in the company of the Lord.
Feeling of friendship (sâkhya) for the Divine, which is a more intimate, mystical form of associating with God.
“Self-offering” (âtma-nivedanâ), or ecstatic self-transcendence, through which the worshiper enters into the immortal body of the divine Person.
These nine stages also are lucidly explained in Rûpa Gosvâmin’s Bhakti-Rasa-Amrita-Sindhû (“Ocean of the Immortal Essence of Devotion”).17 They form part of a ladder of continuous ascent to ever more fervent devotion and thus to union with the Divine. Supporting this process is the disposition of faith (shraddhâ), which is true of all traditional forms of Yoga. In Vyâsa’s Yoga-Bhâshya (1.20), faith is said to be like a good, protective mother. As noted before, faith is different from belief.
Whereas belief is of the nature of an opinion, faith is the disposition of trust in the spiritual Reality and the yogic process leading to it. Faith is emphasized already in the ancient Rig-Veda:
With faith the [sacrificial] fire is kindled. With faith the oblation is offered. With speech I glorify [the Goddess] Faith [who is seated] upon Bhaga’s head. (10.151.1)
We invoke faith at dawn, faith at midday, faith at sunset. O Faith, establish faith within us! (10.151.5)
Remarkably, the Bhâgavata-Purâna (7.1.30) acknowledges the liberating
power of emotions other than love-such as fear, sexual desire, and even hatred-so long as their object is the Divine. The secret behind this is simple enough: In order to fear God (as did Kamsa), feel hatred for the Divine (as did Shishupâla), or approach the Lord with burning erotic love (as did the cowgirls of Vrindâvâna in the case of the God-man Krishna), a person must place his or her attention on the Divine. This focus creates a bridge across which the eternally given grace can enter and transform that person’s life, even to the point of enlightenment, provided the emotion is intense enough. Thus the content of the emotion is less important than its object. The Vishnu-Purâna tells the story of King Shishupâla, who hated the Divine, in the form of Vishnu, so intensely that he thought about God constantly and in the process achieved enlightenment. This involuntary spiritual practice bears the name dvesha-yoga, meaning “Yoga of hatred.”
In the path of Bhakti-Yoga, the devotee feels a growing passion (rati) for the Lord, and this helps him or her to break down one barrier after another between the human personality and the divine Person. This increasing love culminates in the vision of the cosmos penetrated, saturated, and sustained by the Lord. This is the kind of vision that overwhelmed and awed Prince Arjuna, as described in the famous eleventh chapter of the Bhagavad-Gîtâ. Witnessing the divine splendor of Lord Krishna, Arjuna exclaimed:
O God, in your Body I behold the deities and all the various kinds of beings, the Lord Brahma seated on the lotus throne, and all the seers and divine serpents! (11.15)
Everywhere I behold you [who are] of endless Form, with many arms, bellies, mouths, and eyes. I can see no end, middle, or beginning in you, O All-Lord, All-Form! (11.16)
I behold you with diadem, mace, and discus-a mass of brilliance, flaming all round. You are hard to see, for you are immeasurable, entirely a brilliant radiance of sun-fire. (11.17)
Beholding that great Form of yours, with its many mouths and eyes, its many arms, thighs, feet, bellies, and formidable fangs, O strong-armed [Krishna], the worlds shudder, and so do I. (11.23)
With flaming mouths, you lick up and devour all the worlds entirely. Filling the whole universe with your brilliance, your dread-inspiring rays blaze forth, O Vishnu. (11.30)
Tell me who you of dread-inspiring Form are. Salutations be to you! O foremost God, have mercy! I wish to know you [as you were] at first [in your human form], for I do not comprehend your Creativity (pravritti). (11.31)
The final moment of realization, when the devotee merges with the Divine, i
s described in the Bhagavad- Gîtâ as supreme love-participation (para-bhakti). Prior to that event, devotion requires that God be faced as an Other, who can be worshiped in song, ritual action, or meditation. After that moment, however, the Divine and the devotee are inseparably merged in love, though most schools of Bhakti-Yoga insist that this mystical merging is not one of total identification with God. The Divine is experienced as infinitely more comprehensive than the devotee, who is rather like a conscious cell within the incommensurable body of God.
In his Bhakti-Sûtra, Sage Nârada distinguishes between a primary and a secondary type of devotion. The latter is tinged by personal goals and ulterior motives, such as the desire to be protectively embraced by the Lord or to be aided by him in worldly affairs. It can express itself in many different ways. Depending on the predominance of one of the three qualities (guna) of Nature, the devotee’s love for the Divine can be more or less self-centered and more or less active.18 By contrast, primary devotion is total surrender to God, pure devotion free of selfish motivation. As Nârada puts it in the Bhakti-Sûtra (5), the true devotee “sees nothing but love, hears only about love, speaks only of love, and thinks of love alone.” The great scholar Surendranath Dâsgupta characterized this advanced spiritual practitioner as follows:
Such a person is so attached to God that there is nothing else for which he cares; without any effort on his part, other attachments and inclinations lose their hold over him. So great is his passion for God that it consumes all his earthly passion …
The bhakta who is filled with such a passion does not experience it merely as an undercurrent of joy which waters the depths of his heart in his own privacy, but as a torrent that overflows the caverns of his heart into all his senses. Through all his senses he realizes it as if it were a sensuous delight; with his heart and soul he feels it as a spiritual intoxication of joy. Such a person is beside himself with this love of God. He sings, laughs, dances and weeps. He is no longer a person of this world.19
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