The hymns of the Vedas are traditionally referred to as mantras. There is no adequate English equivalent for the word mantra. It is derived from the root man (“to think” or “be intent”), which also is found in the terms manman (“to ponder intently”), manas (“mind”), manisha (“understanding”), manu (“wise” or “man”), mana (“zeal”), manyu (“mood” or “mind”), mantu (“ruler”), and manus (“human being”). The suffix tra in mantra suggests instrumentality. However, according to an esoteric explanation it stands for the word trâna, meaning “saving.” Thus a mantra is that which saves the mind from itself, or which leads to salvation through the concentration of the mind.
A mantra is sacred utterance, numinous sound, or sound that is charged with psychospiritual power. A mantra is sound that empowers the mind, or that is empowered by the mind. It is a vehicle of meditative transformation of the human body-mind and is thought to have magical potency. Ernest Wood (alias Swami Sattwikag- raganya), an early Western exponent of Yoga, wrote:
It may be said that there is in all material forms-those that appeal to the ear as well as those that affect the eye-the presence and power of the divine. Everything affects us, according to its form. For example, if you go into a room largely decorated with forms composed of straight lines, you will find that it stimulates your mentality; but if you enter one full of curved and flower-like forms, it will be found to stir the emotions. When, through any of those forms we catch a glimpse of the divine, we call it beauty. Beauty is the power of God touching us direct in material things … Mantras, then, are forms of sound prescribed for repetition, calculated to link man with the divine by assisting him in his emotional and mental aspirations. All good poetry is something of a mantra, because it conveys more than the common meaning of its words. All beauty affects us mantrically, but the power of its impressions is often lost by the presence of too much variety and confusion and rapid change.26
In his Tantra-loka (7.3–5), the tenth-century adept and scholar Abhinava Gupta explains the function of mantras with the aid of the following simile: A single waterwheel, turning endlessly under the power of the flowing river, can move a series of mechanical contraptions coupled to it. Similarly, a single mantra, repeated over and over again, can activate the deities (devatâ) associated with it, which then-without further effort on his or her part-become an auspicious force in the transformation of the practitioner’s consciousness.
This seems to have been fully understood in Vedic times already. The Sanskrit hymns of the Vedas, “visualized” by highly gifted seers, were composed in fifteen different meters that called for punctilious recitation in ritual contexts and required carefully regulated breathing to ensure the necessary accuracy. It is here that we may look for the origins of the later yogic technique of breath control (prânâyâma) and Mantra- Yoga. One of the four Vedic hymnodies, the Sâma- Veda, contains a large number of hymns that were sung by special priests during the great sacrificial rites; the songs, which are still sung today, sound somewhat like medieval plainchants.
It is a well-known fact that prolonged and concentrated chanting leads to alterations in consciousness. When this effect is combined with the “intoxicating” soma draft used in the daily rituals, it is easy to understand why the Vedic seers were experts on altered states of consciousness. It is not known from which plant the soma juice was pressed. Some authorities think it was Asclepias acida, while others identify it with the fly agaric mushroom,27 but the latter hypothesis does not seem to be borne out by the Vedic descriptions of the plant and the method of pressing it. That the soma draft had a consciousness-altering effect is clear from the hymns themselves, although, at the same time, the “real” soma was not the plant pressed and poured during the ritual, but the heavenly nectar of immortality. This hidden soma, declares the Rig-Veda (10.85.3), “no one tastes.” That higher soma is said to be brought forth by “skillful visionary thought.” The physical soma draft merely acts as a trigger for the vision of the divine soma.
The most remarkable speculation about sound is found in the Rig-Vedic hymn 1.164, which speaks of Vâc (Latin vox, “voice”), a feminine deity, as the “mother” of the Vedas. She is said to have four “feet” (pâda), or aspects. Three of these are beyond the ken of mortals, and only one is known, belonging to human speech. Only the seers (rishi) know how to track down Vâc in her secret dimension. A second hymn (10.71.4) expresses regret at those who see and hear without seeing and hearing Vâc.
In other hymns, Vâc is related to the sacred cows (vâcas) who are called “auspiciously voiced.” Some experts think that the mooing of cows was associated with the sacred syllable om, which is the primal sound of the cosmos. Such an association may well have existed, but to suggest that the sound of an animal, however much it may have been appreciated by the Vedic people, somehow gave rise to the metaphysical speculations surrounding the sacred syllable seems farfetched. At any rate, in these archaic hymns we clearly have the foundations of the later Mantra-Yoga.
The single most important sound in Vedic ritual chanting was om, and it is to this day the most widely recognized and venerated sacred phoneme of Hinduism. It is even found in Buddhist Tantrism (e.g., in the Tibetan mantric formula om mani padme hûm, “Om, jewel in the lotus, hûm”). The syllable om, which contains “a whole philosophy which many volumes would not suffice to state,”28 is held to be or to express the pulse of the cosmos itself. It was through meditative practice rather than intellectual speculation that the seers and sages of Vedic times arrived at the idea of a universal sound, eternally resounding in the universe, which they saw as the very origin of the created world. The Vedic seers inwardly heard that sound in their moments of deepest meditation when they had successfully blocked out all external sounds.
The late Agehânanda Bharati, a Western Swami and professor of anthropology, made the important observation that a mantra is a mantra only when it has been imparted by a teacher to a disciple during an initiatory ritual.29 Thus, the sacred syllable om is not a mantra to the uninitiated. It acquires its mantric power only through initiation. The Mantra-Yoga-Samhitâ (1.5), a work possibly of the eighteenth century C.E, acknowledges this fact when it states:
Initiation (dîkshâ) is the root of all recitation (japâ);30 initiation is likewise the root of asceticism; initiation by a true teacher accomplishes all things.
Mantras, which may consist of single sounds or a whole string of sounds, can be employed for many different purposes. Originally, mantras were undoubtedly used to ward off undesirable powers or events and to attract those that were deemed desirable, and this is still their predominant application. In other words, mantras are used as magical tools. But they are also employed in spiritual contexts as instruments of empowerment, where they aid the aspirant’s search for identification with the transcendental Reality. Thus, a Vedântic mantra like aham brahma asmi,31 “I am the Absolute,” is a potent affirmation of our fundamental identity as the Self (âtman), which also is the Ground of the objective world.
The beginnings of Mantra-Yoga, as we have seen, lie far back in the era of the Vedas. But Mantra-Yoga proper is a product of the same philosophical and cultural forces that also gave rise to Tantra in medieval India. In fact, Mantra-Yoga is a principal aspect of the Tantric approach and is treated in numerous works belonging to that spiritual heritage. For this reason its metaphysical or esoteric basis will be discussed in Chapter 17.
There also are a number of scriptures that specifically expound Mantra-Yoga, notably the encyclopedic Mantra-Mahodadhi (“Ocean of Mantras”), which was composed by Mahîdhâra in the late nineteenth century. This text comes complete with an autocommentary entitled Naukâ (“Boat”). Other popular and relatively recent works are the Mantra-Mahârnava (“Great Ocean of Mantras”), the Mantra-Mukta-Avalî (“Independent Tract on Mantras”), the Mantra-Kaumudî (“Moonlight on Mantras”), the Tattva- nanda-Târângini (“River of the Bliss of Reality”) of the sixteenth-century adept Pûrnânanda, and the Mantra-Yoga-Samhitâ
(“Compendium of Mantra- Yoga”), authored in the seventeenth or eighteenth century. To these must be added several dictionaries that endeavor to explain the esoteric meaning of mantras— a rather dubious enterprise, as is borne out by the fact that these reference works frequently contradict one another. Of these scriptures, only the Mantra-Maho- dadhi and the Mantra-Yoga-Samhitâ are available in English.
According to the last-mentioned text, Mantra- Yoga has sixteen limbs:
Devotion (bhakti), which is threefold: (a) prescribed devotion (vaidhi-bhakti), (b) devotion involving attachment (râga-âtmika-bhakti)-that is, which is tainted by egoic motives, and (c) supreme devotion (para- bhakti), which yields superlative bliss.
Purification (shuddhi), which is distinguishable by the following four factors: body, mind, direction, and location. This practice entails (a) cleansing the body, (b) purifying the mind (through faith, study, and the cultivation of various virtues), (c) facing in the right direction during recitation, and (d) using an especially consecrated location for one’s practice.
Posture (âsana), which is meant to stabilize the body during meditative recitation; it is said to comprise two principal forms, namely svastika-âsana and the lotus posture (padma- âsana),32 which are both depicted in Chapter 18.
“Serving the five limbs” (panca-anga- sevâna), the daily ritual of reading the Bhagavad-Gîtâ (“Lord’s Song”) and the Sahasra-Nâma (“Thousand Names”) and reciting songs of praise (stava), protection (kavâca), and heart-opening (hridaya). These five are thought of as the “limbs” of the Divine; their practice is understood as a powerful means of granting attention and energy to the Divine and thereby becoming assimilated into it.
Conduct (âcâra), which is of three kinds: divine (divya), or that which is beyond worldly activity and renunciation; “left- hand” (vâma), which involves worldly activity; and “right-hand” (dakshinâ), which involves renunciation.
Concentration (dhâranâ), which may have an external or an internal object.
“Serving the divine space” (divya-desha- sevâna), which has sixteen constituent practices that convert a given place into consecrated space.
“Breath ritual” (prâna-kriyâ), which is said to be singular but accompanied by a variety of practices, such as the various types of placing (nyâsa) the life force into different parts of the body.
Gesture or “seal” (mudrâ), which has numerous forms. These hand gestures are used to focus the mind. They are described in more detail in Chapter 17.
“Satisfaction” (tarpana), which is the practice of offering libations of water to the deities, thereby delighting them and making them favorably disposed toward the yogin.
Invocation (havana), or calling upon the deity by means of mantras.
Offering (bali), which consists in making gifts of fruit, etc., to the deity. The best offering is deemed to be the gift of oneself.
Sacrifice (yâga),33 which can be either external or internal. The inner sacrifice is praised as superior.
Recitation (japâ), which is of three kinds: mental (mânasa), quiet (upâmshu), and voiced (vâcika).
Meditation (dhyâna), which is manifold, because of the great variety of possible objects of contemplation.
Ecstasy (samâdhi), which is also known as the “great state” (mahâ-bhâva) in which the mind dissolves into the Divine or the chosen deity as a manifestation of the absolute Being.
As is evident from this outline of the sixteenfold path of Mantra-Yoga, this school has a pronounced ritualistic orientation. This reflects well the overall bias of Tantra. Today, when mantras are widely sold and published, it is perhaps good to remember that they originated in a sacred setting. Mantra-Yoga has through the ages been presented as the easiest of all approaches to Self-realization. What could possibly be easier than to recite a mantra? Yet, it is obvious that this Yoga, in the final analysis, is as demanding as any other. The mindless repetition of mantras, especially by the uninitiated, can hardly lead to enlightenment or bliss. Paradoxically, we must be intensely attentive in order to transcend the game of attention and realize the ultimate Being-Consciousness-Bliss. Mantra-Yoga demands the same self-sacrifice as all other forms of Yoga.
LAYA-YOGA-DISSOLVING THE UNIVERSE
Laya-Yoga makes meditative “absorption” or “dissolution” (laya) its focus. The word laya is derived from the root lî, meaning “to become dissolved” or “vanish” but also “to cling” and “to remain sticking.” This dual connotation of the verbal root lî is preserved in the word laya. The laya-yogins seek to meditatively dissolve themselves by clinging solely to the transcendental Self. They endeavor to transcend all memory traces and sensory experiences by dissolving the
microcosm, the mind, into the transcendental Being-Consciousness- Bliss. Their goal is to progressively dismantle their inner universe by way of intense contemplation, until only the singular transcendental Reality, the Self, remains.
The spiritual process has long been understood as one of gradual resorption of “later” aspects of the psychocosmologic evolution into “earlier” ones-that is, the involution of the Many into the One through a progressive simplification of the psyche, or mind. The Kathâ-Upanishad (1.3.13), for instance, speaks of controlling “speech” in the mind (manas), the mind in the knowledge identity (jnâna-âtman), the knowledge identity (i.e., the sense-derived knowledge) in the “great one” (mahân), and the great one (i.e., the higher mind, or buddhi) in the supreme Self. Similarly, the Prashna-Upanishad (4.8) states that all the various principles of existence, such as the material elements, the subtle elements, the senses, the mind, the higher mind, the ego-sense, awareness (citta), and the life force, must be realized as residing in the supreme Self.
Laya-Yoga is a frontal attack on the illusion of individuality. As Shyam Sundar Goswami, who has written the most authoritative book on the subject, explained:
Layayoga is that form of yoga in which yoga, that is samâdhi, is attained through laya. Laya is deep concentration causing the absorption of the cosmic principles, stage by stage, into the spiritual aspect of the Supreme Power-Consciousness. It is the process of absorption of the cosmic principles in deep concentration, thus freeing consciousness from all that is not spiritual, and in which is held the divine luminous coiled power, termed kundalinî.34
The spiritual work of the laya-yogin appears to have been misunderstood already in medieval times. This is evident from the following stanza found in the Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ (4.34), one of the standard manuals of Hatha-Yoga:
They exclaim “absorption, absorption,” but what is the character of absorption? Absorption is the nonremembering of objects as a result of the nonemergence of previously [acquired] impressions (vâsanâ).
The “nonremembering of objects” is not a temporary lapse of memory but the condition of objectless or transconceptual ecstasy, or what in Vedânta is called nirvikalpa-samâdhi. This state roughly corresponds to asamprajnâta-samâdhi in Classical Yoga. In yogic circles, memory is explained as a network of subliminal impressions (vâsanâ). These are rather like the scent lingering in the nose after one has smelled a fragrant flower, though they are far less benign, as they keep us imprisoned in the world of change. Because they are highly dynamic forces, which continually give rise to mental activity, they also are known as “activators” (samskâra). In the highest ecstatic state, these subliminal forces are neutralized, preparing the mind for its own dissolution (i.e., transcendence) in the state of enlightenment.
The laya-yogins are concerned with transcending these karmic patterns within their own mind to the point at which their inner cosmos becomes dissolved. In this endeavor they utilize many practices and concepts from Tantra-Yoga, which also can be found in Hatha-Yoga, especially the model of the subtle body (sûkshma-sharîra) with its psychoenergetic centers (cakra) and currents (nâdî).
Central to Laya-Yoga, moreover, is the important notion of the kundalinî-shakti, the serpent power, which represents the universal life force as manifested in
the human body. The arousal and manipulation of this tremendous force also is the principal objective of the hatha-yogin. In fact, Laya-Yoga can be understood as the higher, meditative phase of Hatha-Yoga.
As the awakened kundalinî force ascends from the psychoenergetic center at the base of the spine to the crown of the head, it absorbs a portion of the life energy in the limbs and trunk. This is esoterically explained as the reabsorption of the five material elements (bhûta) into their subtle counterparts. The body temperature drops measurably in those parts, whereas the crown feels as if on fire and is very warm to the touch. The physiology of this process is not yet understood. Subjectively, however, yogins experience a progressive dissolution of their ordinary state of being, until they recover the ever-present Self-Identity (âtman) that knows no bodily or mental limits. Also, at the climax of microcosmic dissolution, breathing automatically stops or becomes imperceptible. This is known as “absolute retention” (kevâla-kumbhaka).
The process of absorption is common to all forms of meditative Yoga, which consists in a progressive withdrawal from the external world and the increasing unification of one’s inner environment. However, in Laya-Yoga special attention is paid to the psychoenergetic aspect of this process. The significance of this will become clearer after reading Chapters 17 and 18.
IX. INTEGRAL YOGA-A MODERN SYNTHESIS
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