According to a widely accepted model, the Jaina ladder to emancipation comprises fourteen stages, known as the levels of virtue (guna-sthâna). This framework describes the course of a person’s maturation from ordinary worldly life to spiritual liberation. It begins with the conventional state of unenlightenment, which is governed by false vision (mithyâ-drishti) involving the mistaken idea that one is identical with the finite body-mind. Gradually, a “taste” for right insight (samyag-drishti) appears. Now the practitioner understands that he or she transcends the skin-bound mortal frame. This knowledge grows with practice, and given steady discipline the aspirant is step by step propelled toward liberation. The fourteen stages (sthâna) are characterized as follows:
False vision (mithyâ-drishti): On this level an animate being is still completely unenlightened and therefore under the full sway of the forces of karma.
Taste for right vision (sâsvâdana-samyag- drishti): There is a dim understanding of what is true and false, but with long relapses into ignorance.
Right and false vision (samyag-mithyâ- drishti): An entity oscillates between truth and doubt. This stage is also called “mixed” (mishra).
Lack of self-restraint but right vision (avi- rata-samyag-drishti): At this stage right insight is no longer suppressed but control over the emotions is still a problem. Here spiritual life proper can begin, providing self-control (virati) is cultivated.
Conditional self-restraint and right vision (desha-virata-samyag-drishti): The importance of proper moral conduct is realized and the desire arises to renounce the world and become an ascetic; here ends the career of the householder, who must now decide either to postpone renunciation of the world or ascend to higher stages by means of asceticism.
Control over inattention (pramatta-samyatâ): The ascetic has almost completely curbed the four vices, which are anger, pride, delusion, and greed. He or she is capable of checking the tendency of the mind to slip into unconscious behavior patterns through sheer inattention (pramâda).
Controlled attention (apramatta-samyatâ): Through the purification of the mind, sleep is overcome, and the ascetic acquires the power for intense concentration and meditative absorption.
The gross struggle with cessation (nivritti- bâdara-sâmparâyâ): This is also called apûrva-karana-sâmparâyâ because of a special meditation practice by which the ascetic cultivates a joy previously not known. Moreover, the ascetic gains even greater power over himself or herself.
The gross struggle with noncessation (anivritti- bâdara-sâmparâyâ): At this stage the sexual impulses are brought under complete control and the emotional forces are equally well subdued.
The subtle struggle (sûkshma-sâmparâyâ): Now even the last trace of worldly interest is eradicated.
The pacification of delusion (upashânta- mohâ): The mistaken notion of being a separate physical entity is fully subdued and makes room for the intuition of the universal Consciousness.
The disappearance of delusion (kshîna- mohâ): Here all egoic delusion is destroyed and the ascetic, unhindered by any karma, attains full gnosis.
Active transcendence (sayoga-kevalî): This is the stage of inner isolation from all multiplicity. Should the omniscient ascetic resolve in this state to propound his newly found knowledge, he becomes a tîrthan- kara or ford-maker. This ecstatic state lasts a minimum of one muhûrta (forty-eight minutes) and a maximum of a little less than a pûrva-koti (7,056 followed by 27 zeros). The ascetic who has won through to this sublime condition is known as a tran- scender (kevalin), victor (jîna), or worthy one (arhat).
Inactive transcendence (ayoga-kevalî): In this stage of the meditative process, which lasts for no more than one muhûrta, even the last trace of karma is eradicated, and the ascetic emerges as a fully liberated being. This condition is attained by a jîna or arhat just prior to the death of the physical body. This stage corresponds to the dharma- megha-samâdhi in Classical Yoga. Beyond the fourteen stages of virtue lies liberation, the luminous Condition of the perfected being (siddha), free from bodily existence and karma.
“The Yoga teachers have said that nescience is seeing that which is eternal, pure, and the Self in the finite, impure, and non-self, and that wisdom is the perception of Reality.”
—Jnâna-Sâra 105
It must be added that stages eight, nine, and ten hold special significance, because it is here that the spiritual practitioner gains control over the passions in their gross and subtle aspects. In order to attain the enlightened condition, the spiritual practitioner has to pass through three great inner processes. The first process, known as yathâ-pravritti-karana, reduces the duration and intensity of karma. By means of the second process, called apûrva-karana, the “knot” (granthi) at the heart is severed, and the practitioner becomes empowered to proceed to higher levels of meditation. This occurs in the eighth stage of the fourteenfold way of spiritual ascent. Finally, through the third process, activated in the tenth stage and known as anivritti-karana, the karmic material surrounding and weighing down the Self is divided into three parts: impure, pure, and mixed. Depending on which karmic parcel gets activated, the individual will either return to a worldly disposition or move on to the higher stages of meditative practice.
The main instruments governing the progression through these stages of spiritual attainment are the very intricate ethical rules laid down in the canonical literature of Jainism. As the following list of virtues bears out, there is a great similarity between Jaina, Buddhist, and Hindu ethics. Thus, in Umâsvâti’s famous Tattva-Artha-Sûtra (9.7), written in the fifth century C.E., we find these qualifications of an ascetic, which are all considered forms of nonharming: forbearance (kshamâ), humility (mârdava), uprightness (ârjava), purity (shauca), truthfulness (satya), self-discipline (samyama), austerity (tapas), renunciation (tyâga), poverty (akincanya, lit. “having nothing”), chastity (brahmâcârya). For the layman the following rules are binding: almsgiving (dâna), virtuous conduct (shîla), austerity (tapas), and a spiritual disposition (bhâva). Other scriptures contain different and often far more detailed prescriptions for the ascetics and the laity.
Jaina Yoga
In its higher aspects, Jaina Yoga resembles its Hindu counterpart, and in fact the later Jaina writers like Haribhadra Sûri (c. 750 C.E.)7 have made use of some of the codifications of Patanjali. In his Yoga-Bindu, Haribhadra praises Yoga as follows:
Yoga is the best wish-fulfilling tree (kalpa-taru). Yoga is the supreme wishgranting jewel (cintâ-mani). Yoga is the foremost of virtues. Yoga is the very embodiment of perfection (siddhi). (37)
Thus, it is declared to be [like] the fire [that consumes the karmic] seed of incarnation, like extreme old age in regard to aging, or fatal consumption in regard to suffering, or death in regard to death itself. (38)
The great souls (mahâ-âtman)8 accomplished in Yoga declare that even a mere hearing of the two syllables [of the word yoga], according to the rules, is sufficient for the removal of sins. (40)
Just as impure gold is inevitably purified by fire, so also the mind afflicted with the taint of [spiritual] ignorance is [purified] by the fire of Yoga. (41)
Thus, verily, Yoga is the foundation for realizing Reality (tattva), for this is ascertained through nothing else. There is nothing comparable [to Yoga]. (64)
Hence, in order to realize that very Reality, the thoughtful person should always make a mighty effort. Argumentative books are of no avail. (65)
Haribhadra distinguishes between Yoga proper and what he calls preparatory service (pûrva-sevâ). The latter consists in the following practices:
Veneration (pûjana) of the teacher, the deities, and other beings of authority, such as one’s parents and elders. In the case of the deities, this involves ritual worship with flowers and other offerings. In the case of one’s elders, veneration is shown by respectful bowing and general obedience to them.
Proper conduct (sadâ- carâ) involves charity (dâna), conformity to the social mores, the abstention
from blaming others, the practice of praise and cheerfulness in adversity, as well as humility, considered speech, and integrity, observance of one’s vows, the abandonment of lethargy, and refraining from reprehensible behavior even in the face of death.
Asceticism or penance (tapas) is thought to remove one’s sins and should be practiced to the utmost of one’s abilities. Primarily, it involves different forms of fasting, including prolonged, month-long fasts combined with the chanting of mantras.
Non-aversion toward liberation (mukti- advesha, written muktyadvesha) or what in the Hindu school of Vedânta is known as the desire for liberation: This disposition is essential to success in spiritual life. The desire to transcend the ego limitation must overwhelm all other desires and impulses. Haribhadra makes the point that ordinary people, under the spell of hedonism, find the ideal of liberation minimally attractive, because it does not promise the usual enjoyment. In fact, they feel threatened by the prospect of a bliss that eclipses the ego. Hence, it is important to cultivate right understanding.
This preparatory practice may be taken up by what the Jaina tradition calls the apunar-bandhaka, the person who, after numerous lifetimes, has grown weary of the worldly game and is embarking on his or her final embodiment. For Haribhadra, however, genuine Yoga practice is possible only for a spiritually more mature individual. He speaks of the samyag-drishti, the person who has correct vision or understanding, and the câritrin, who is firmly on the spiritual path.
The apunar-bandhaka is on the first of the fourteen levels of virtues described above, where the ego illusion predominates. The samyag-drishti, whom Haribhadra compares to the Buddhist bodhisattva, has attained the fourth level, where fundamental spiritual insight prevails but discipline is still a problem. The câritrin occupies the fifth level, which is marked by the desire to renounce the world and adopt the ascetic lifestyle.
Haribhadra speaks of five degrees of genuine Yoga, for which the câritrin alone is equipped:
Adhyâtman, or adhyâtma-yoga, is the constant remembering, or pondering upon, one’s essential nature.
Bhâvanâ, or contemplation, is the daily concentrated observance of the essential nature (adhyâtman) itself, which increases the quality and time of one’s dwelling in spiritually positive mental states.
Dhyâna, or meditation, is the mind’s fixation upon auspicious objects, which is accompanied by subtle enjoyment. Such meditation leads to great mental stability and the ability to influence others mentally.
Samatâ, or “sameness,” is the mood of indifference toward things that one normally would feel attracted to or repelled by. Cultivation of this attitude includes abstention from the use of psychic powers (riddhi or siddhi), and it attenuates the subtle karmic forces that bind a person to worldly existence.
Vritti-samkshaya, or the full removal of the movements of consciousness, means the complete transcendence of karma-produced psychomental states. This leads to emancipation (moksha), which “is unobstructed and the seat of eternal bliss” (Yoga-Bindu 367).
At the core of the advanced Yoga practice is meditative absorption, which every follower of Jainism is asked to practice at least once a day for one muhûrta (forty-eight minutes) in the morning. The ascetic is naturally required to dedicate most of his or her time to this exercise. But lay folk can take additional vows obliging them to, say, meditate three times a day for longer periods.
There are no strict regulations about how this meditation ought to be performed; there is a choice between a variety of techniques, some of which are strongly reminiscent of Tantric exercises. In Umâsvâti’s Tattva-Artha- Sûtra (9.27-46), meditation is explained as follows:
Meditation (dhyâna) is the restraint (nirodha) of the single-pointed mind (cintâ) in [the case of one who possesses] the highest steadfastness …
… up to one muhûrta [forty-eight minutes].
[Meditation can be of four types:] disagreeable (ârta), savage (raudra), virtuous (dharma), or pure (shukla).
[Only] the last two [types] are the cause of liberation.
The disagreeable [meditation occurs] when upon contacting an unpleasant experience (amano-jnâna), [the practitioner] dwells on the memory [of that experience] in order to dissociate from it
and [unpleasant] sensations,
the reverse of pleasant experience,
and from the “link” (nidâna) [which is the desire to fulfill a certain intention in a future life].
This [disagreeable meditation occurs] in the case of the undisciplined, partly disciplined, and the lax in restraint.
The savage [meditation], [which occurs] in the case of the undisciplined or partly disciplined, is for harming, lying, theft, or the preservation of possessions.
The virtuous [meditation], [which occurs] in the case of the [ascetic who is] disciplined in attentiveness, is for ascertaining the revealed order (âjnâ) [i.e., the sacred tradition], the diminution (apâya) [of the Self through karma], the fruition (vipâka) [of karma], and the construction (samsthâna) [of the universe].
[This meditation occurs] also in the case of those whose passions have either been pacified or vanished.
[In the case of those whose passions (kashâya) have altogether vanished, there occur] also the [first] two pure [meditations].
The latter [two pure meditations occur] in the case of the transcender (kevalin).
[The four forms or stages of the pure meditation are:]
The consideration (vitarka) of separateness and of singleness, absorption (pratipatti) in subtle activity, and the cessation of quiesced activity.
This [fourfold pure meditation occurs in the case of those who respectively experience] the triple, the single, or the [purely] bodily action (yoga) [as well as those who are completely] inactive.
In regard to the former [two forms, which are accompanied by] consideration, [there is] a single prop [or object of meditation].
The second [of these forms accompanied by consideration or vitarka] is beyond reflection (avicâra).
Consideration is [knowledge of what has been] revealed (shruta).
Reflection (vicâra) is the [mind’s] revolving around meaning (artha), symbol (vyanjana), and activity (yoga).
“The highest virtue [for monks consists in] patience, humility, rectitude, purity, truthfulness, self-control, asceticism, renunciation, poverty, and chastity.”
— Tattva-Artha-Adhigama-Sûtra 9.6
As with all Sûtra compositions, this work is barely intelligible without its commentaries. In particular, aphorism 9.42 is obscure. It appears that the third degree of pure meditation (shukla-dhyâna) consists in bodily activity only. There is no consideration (vitarka) or reflection (vicâra) at this level. Then, in the fourth and final stage, the already calmed bodily activity is utterly transcended. The first degree of pure meditation falls into the eighth to eleventh stage of the fourteenfold path, the second into the twelfth stage, the third into the thirteenth, and the fourth coincides with the fourteenth stage and is followed by the great event of liberation.
The schema of four types or degrees of meditation is interesting, and the phraseology reminds one strongly of the Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali. But Umâsvâti, the author of this Jaina work, has his own idiosyncratic interpretations of such key yogic terms as vitarka and vicâra. A similar situation pertains in Buddhism, which also offers its own interpretations, though they precede Patanjali’s formulations.
Meditative absorption can be practiced either sitting or standing. The Jaina scriptures mention such postures as the “bedstead” (paryanka) and “half-bedstead” (ardha-paryanka), which are reclining postures, and the thunderbolt posture (vajrâ-âsana, written vajrâsana), the lotus posture (kamala-âsana, written kamalâsana), and the tailor seat or easy posture (sukha-âsana, written sukhâsana), which should be practiced at a suitable location. However, it is occasionally recommended that the place should be more disagreeable than comfortable, which reminds one of the Tantric custom of meditating on the cremation ground amidst decayin
g corpses—a vivid reminder of the impermanence of everything.
Some texts, like the Yoga-Shâstra of Hemacandra, mention other postures (âsana) identical with those known in Hindu Yoga, such as the hero posture (vîra-âsana, written vîrâsana), the auspicious posture (bhadra-âsana, written bhadrâsana), and the staff posture (danda-âsana, written dandâsana). Hemacandra also refers to a certain utkatika-âsana (written utkatikâsana) and godohika- âsana (written godohikâsana), and makes the point that there are no special rules for choosing one rather than the other posture. The generic technical term for the meditative posture is kâya-utsarga (written kâyotsarga, “casting off of the body”), which is also sometimes considered a specific posture in itself. The name is meant to suggest that the purpose of such yogic postures is not so much to cultivate the body as to transcend it. In his Niyama-Sâra (121), Kunda Kunda gives this practice a psychological meaning:
He who, shunning the [idea of] stability in regard to other substances, such as the body, meditates without form (niiyikalpa) upon the Self cultivates the casting off of the body (tanu).
Hemacandra recommends breath control (prânâ- yâma) as an aid to meditation, following largely the lines of Patanjali’s Yoga-Sûtra. However, at least one Jaina authority on Yoga, Shubhacandra, takes a different point of view in his Jnâna-Arnava.9 He states that breath control is helpful in checking physical activity but interferes with concentration and is likely to produce disagreeable (ârta) meditation experiences. Instead, he advises the practitioner to aspire to what he calls superlative concentration (parama-samâdhi). This view is reinforced by Kunda Kunda, who makes the following comment in his Niyama-Sâra (124):
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