1.1: atha yogânushâsanam (atha yoga-anushâsanam) “Now [commences] the exposition of Yoga.”
1.2: yogashcittavrittinirodhah (yogash citta-vritti- nirodhah)
“Yoga is the restriction of the whirls of consciousness.”
1.3: tadâ drashthuh svarûpe’ vasthânam (tada drashthuh sva-rûpe’ vasthânam)
“Then [i.e., when that restriction has been accomplished] the ‘Seer’ [i.e., the transcendental Self] appears.”
Of course, such terms as citta (consciousness), vritti (lit. “whirl”), and drashtri (“seer”) are themselves highly condensed expressions for rather complex concepts. Even such a seemingly straightforward word as atha (“now”), which opens most traditional Sanskrit treatises, is packed with meanings, as is evident from the many pages of exegesis dedicated to it in some of the commentaries on the Yoga-Sûtra.
In his monumental History of Indian Philosophy, Surendranath Dâsgupta made the following observations about this style of writing:
The systematic treatises were written in short and pregnant half-sentences (sûtras) which did not elaborate the subject in detail, but served only to hold before the reader the lost threads of memory of elaborate disquisitions with which he was already thoroughly acquainted. It seems, therefore, that these pithy half-sentences were like lecture hints, intended for those who had direct elaborate oral instructions on the subject. It is indeed difficult to guess from the sutras the extent of their significance, or how far the discussions which they gave rise to in later days were originally intended by them.5
Our knowledge of Pâtanjala-Yoga is primarily, though not entirely, based on the Yoga-Sûtra. As we will see, many commentaries have been written on it that aid our understanding of this system. As scholarship has demonstrated, however, these secondary works do not appear to have come forth from Patanjali’s school itself, and therefore their expositions need to be taken with a good measure of discrimination.
Turning to the Yoga-Sûtra itself, we find that it consists of 195 aphorisms or sutras, though some editions have 196. A number of variant readings are known, but these are generally insignificant and do not change the meaning of Patanjali’s work. The aphorisms are distributed over four chapters as follows:
samâdhi-pâda, chapter on ecstasy
— 51 aphorisms
sâdhanâ-pâda, chapter on the path
— 55 aphorisms
vibhûti-pâda, chapter on the powers
— 55 aphorisms
kaivalya-pâda, chapter on liberation
— 34 aphorisms
This division is somewhat arbitrary and appears to be the result of an inadequate reediting of the text. A close study of the Yoga-Sûtra shows that in its present form it cannot possibly be considered an entirely uniform creation. For this reason various scholars have attempted to reconstruct the original by dissecting the available text into several subtexts of supposedly independent origins. These efforts, however, have not been very successful, because they leave us with inconclusive fragments. It is, therefore, preferable to take a more generous view of Patanjali’s work and grant the possibility that it is far more homogenous than Western scholarship has tended to assume.
As I have shown in my own detailed examination of the Yoga-Sûtra, this great scripture could well be a composite of only two distinct Yoga lineages. On the one hand there is the Yoga of eight limbs or ashta-anga- yoga (written ashtângayoga), and on the other, there is the Yoga of Action (kriyâ-yoga). I have suggested that the section dealing with the eight constituent practices may even be a quotation rather than a later interpolation. If this were indeed correct, the widespread equation of Classical Yoga with the eightfold path would be a historical curiosity, since the bulk of the Yoga-Sûtra deals with kriyâ-yoga. But textual reconstructions of this kind are always tentative, and we must keep an open mind about this as about so many other aspects of Yoga and Yoga history.
The advantage of the kind of methodological approach to the study of the Yoga-Sûtra that I have proposed is that it presumes the text’s homogeneity or “textual innocence” and thus does not do a priori violence to the text, as is the case with those textual analyses that set out to prove that a text is in fact corrupt or composed of fragments and interpolations. At any rate, these scholarly quibbles do not detract from the merit of the work as it is extant today. Now, as then, the Yoga practitioner can benefit greatly from the study of Patanjali’s compilation.
SOURCE READING 12
Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali
Every student of Yoga should, in my opinion, grapple with the Yoga-Sûtra. It was the very first Sanskrit text that I came across in 1965, and it has not stopped fascinating me. The following rendering of Patanjali’s aphorisms is based on my own extensive textual and semantic studies. In some instances my interpretations differ from those offered in the Sanskrit commentaries. My translation is rather literal in order to convey the technical nature of Patanjali s work. All too often the popular renderings fail to do justice to the subtleties of his thought and the complexities of higher Yoga practice.
The asterisk (*) after some of the sûtras indicates either that they belong to what I have identified as the quoted text dealing with the eightfold path, or that they appear to have been added to Patanjali’s original composition. There may be a good many more interpolated sutras, especially in the third chapter, which contains lists of paranormal powers, but it does not seem particularly useful to try to identify them.
I. Samâdhi-Pâda (“Chapter on Ecstasy”)
Now [begins] the exposition of Yoga. (1.1)
Yoga is the restriction (nirodha) of the fluctuations of consciousness (citta). (1.2)
Then the Seer [i.e., the transcendental Self] abides in [its] essential form. (1.3)
At other times [there is] conformity [of the Self] with the fluctuations. (1.4)
Comments: In the unenlightened state, we do not consciously identify with the Self (purusha), but consider ourselves to be a particular individual with a particular character. This does not mean, however, that the Self is absent. Rather, it is merely obscured.
The fluctuations are fivefold; afflicted or unafflicted. (1.5)
Comments: The afflicted (klishta) states of consciousness are those that lead to suffering, while the unafflicted (aklishta) states are conducive to liberation. An example of the latter type is the condition of ecstatic transcendence (samâdhi).
[The five types of fluctuation are:] knowledge, misconception, conceptualization, sleep, and memory. (1.6)
Knowledge [can be derived from] perception, inference, and testimony. (1.7)
Misconception is erroneous knowledge not based on the [actual] appearance of the [underlying object]. (1.8)
Conceptualization is without [perceivable] object, following verbal knowledge. (1.9)
Sleep is a fluctuation founded on the idea (pratyaya) of the nonoccurrence [of other contents of consciousness]. (1.10)
Comments: This aphorism makes the point that the state of sleep, though we have no knowledge of it while it lasts, is nevertheless a content of consciousness that is witnessed by the transcendental Self. Patanjali uses the word pratyaya, here rendered as “idea,” to signify a particular content of consciousness.
Memory is the “nondeprivation” [i.e., retention] of experienced objects. (1.11)
The restriction of these [fluctuations is achieved] through [yogic] practice and dispassion. (1.12)
Practice (abhyâsa) is the exertion [toward gaining] stability in [that state of restriction]. (1.13)
But this [practice] is firmly grounded [only after it has been] cultivated properly and for a long time uninterruptedly. (1.14)
Dispassion (vairâgya) is the certainty of mastery of [the yogin who is] without thirst for visible and revealed [or invisible] things. (1.15)
The higher [form] of this [dispassion] is the nonthirsting for [Nature’s] constituents (guna), [which results] from the vision of the Self (purusha). (1.16)
[The ecstasy arisin
g out of the state of restriction] is conscious (samprajnâta) by being connected with cogitation, reflection, bliss, or 1-am-ness (asmitâ). (1.17)
Comments: Although ecstasy (samâdhi) implies a merging of subject and object, at the lower levels this unitive consciousness is still associated with all kinds of psychomental phenomena, including spontaneously arising thoughts, feelings of bliss, and the sense of being present as a unique entity. Patanjali calls this sense “I-am-ness.” The four types of phenomena listed indicate different levels of this form of ecstasy.
The other [type of ecstasy] has a residuum of activators (samskâra); [it follows] the former [conscious ecstasy] upon the practice of the idea of cessation. (1.18)
Comments: The unitive state associated with thoughts and feelings, etc., is known as conscious ecstasy (samprajnâta-samâdhi). When all these psychomental phenomena have ceased to arise, then the next higher level of the unitive state is present. It is known as supraconscious ecstasy (asamprajnâta-samâdhi). Although in this higher state the yogin is no longer responsive to the environment, it must not be equated with unconscious trance.
[The ecstasy of those who have] merged with Nature (prakriti-laya) and [of those who are] bodiless (videha) [arises from the persistence of] the idea of becoming. (1.19)
[The supraconscious ecstasy] of the other [yogins whose path is referred to in aphorism 1.18] is preceded by faith, energy, mindfulness, [conscious] ecstasy, and wisdom. (1.20)
[The supraconscious ecstasy] is close for [those yogins who are] extremely intense [in their practice of Yoga]. (1.21)
Because [their intensity can be) modest, middling, or excessive, there is hence also a difference [in how close yogins may be to the supraconscious ecstasy). (1.22)
Or [supraconscious ecstasy is gained] through devotion to the Lord (îshvara-pranidhâna). (1.23)
The Lord (îshvara) is a special Self [because He is] untouched by the causes-of-affliction (klesha), action and its fruition, and the deposits (âshaya) [in the depth of memory that gives rise to thoughts, desires, and so on]. (1.24)
In Him the seed of omniscience is unsurpassed. (1.25)
By virtue of [His] continuity over time, [the Lord] was also the mentor of the earlier [adepts of Yoga]. (1.26)
His symbol is the “pronouncement” (pranava) [i.e., the sacred syllable om]. (1.27)
The recitation of that [sacred syllable leads to] the contemplation of its meaning. (1.28)
Thence [follows] the attainment of [habitual] inward-mindedness (pratyak-cetanâ) and also the disappearance of the obstacles [mentioned in the next aphorism], (1.29)
Sickness, languor, doubt, heedlessness, sloth, dissipation, false vision, nonattainment of the stages [of Yoga], and instability [in these stages] are the distractions of consciousness; these are the obstacles. (1.30)
Pain, depression, tremor of the limbs, and [wrong] inhalation and exhalation are accompanying [symptoms] of the distractions. (1.31)
In order to counteract these [distractions, the yogin should resort to] the practice [of concentrating] on a single principle. (1.32)
The projection of friendliness, compassion, gladness, and equanimity toward things—[be they] joyful, sorrowful, meritorious or demeritorious—[leads to] the pacification of consciousness. (1.33)
Or [the restriction of the fluctuations of consciousness is achieved] through expulsion and retention of the breath (prâna) (according to the yogic rules). (1.34)
Or [the condition of restriction comes about when] an object-centered activity has arisen that holds the mind in steadiness. (1.35)
Comments: This technical-sounding aphorism contains a relatively simple idea: According to the Sanskrit commentaries, “object-centered activity” (vishaya-vatî pravritti) denotes a state of heightened sensory awareness called “divine perception” (divya-samvid). The idea is that, for instance, the heightened sensation of smell or touch focuses the mind to the point where the yogin may achieve the state of restriction (nirodha).
Or [restriction is achieved by mental activities that are] sorTowless and illuminating. (1.36)
Or [restriction is achieved when] consciousness is directed toward [those beings who have] conquered attachment. (1.37)
Or [restriction is achieved when consciousness] rests on insights [arising from] dreams and sleep. (1.38)
Or [restriction is achieved] through meditation (dhyâna) as desired. (1.39)
His mastery [extends] from the most minute to the greatest magnitude. (1.40)
[In the case of a consciousness whose] fluctuations have dwindled [and which has become] like a transparent jewel, [there comes about]—in regard to the “grasper.” “grasping,” and the “grasped”—[a state of] coincidence (samâpatti) with that on which [consciousness] abides and by which [consciousness] is “anointed.” (1.41)
Comments: When the mind is completely still, it becomes translucent. Then the ecstatic state, or samâdhi, can occur. The underlying process of ecstasy is one in which the object of concentration looms so large in consciousness that the distinction between subject and object vanishes. Patanjali speaks of this as the “coinciding” of the experiencing subject, the experienced object, and the process of experience, which are respectively referred to as “grasper” (grahîtri), “grasped” (grâhya), and “grasping” (grahana).
[When] conceptual knowledge. [based on] the intent of words, [is present] in this [ecstatic state of coincidence between subject and object], [then it is called] “coincidence interspersed with cogitation.” (1.42)
Comments: Yoga metaphysics distinguishes different levels of existence—from coarse to subtle, to unmanifest, to transcendental. The object of the ecstasy interspersed with cogitation (vitarka-samâdhi) belongs to the “coarse” (sthûla) or material realm.
On the purification of [the depths of] memory, [which has become] empty of its essence as it were, [and when] the object [of meditation] alone shines forth, [then this ecstatic state is called) “supracogitative” (nirvitarka). (1.43)
Thus, by this [cogitative ecstasy, the other two basic types of ecstasy]—the “reflective” (savicâra) and the “suprareflective”(nirvicâra)—are explained; [these have] subtle objects [as meditative props]. (1.44)
Comments: “Reflection” (vicâra) is a spontaneous thought process that occurs in the ecstatic state that has as its focal point a subtle (sûkshma) or immaterial object, such as the transcendental matrix of creation, called the Undifferentiate.
And the subtle objects terminate in the Undifferentiate (alinga). (1.45)
These [types of ecstatic coincidence between subject and object] verily [belong to the class of] “ecstasy with seed” (sabîja-samâdhi). (1.46)
Comments: The term “seed” refers to the remaining subliminal activators (samskâra) in the depths of consciousness. They give rise to future mental activity and thus to karma.
When there is lucidity (vaishâradya) in the suprarefiective [type of ecstasy, then this is called] “of the inner being” (adhyâtma-prasâda). (1.47)
In this [state of utmost lucidity], insight is truth-bearing (ritam-bhara). (1.48)
The scope [of this truth-bearing insight] is distinct from the insight [gained from) tradition and inference, [because of its] particular purposiveness. (1.49)
Comments: The idea expressed in this aphorism seems to be that the truth-bearing insight (prajnâ) reached at the highest level of conscious ecstasy (samprajnâta-samâdhi) is quite different from ordinary knowledge, insofar as it provides the impetus for the transcendence of all knowledge in the state of the supraconscious ecstasy (asamprajnâta-samâdhi), which alone leads to liberation, or Self-realization.
The activator (samskâra) springing from that [truth-bearing insight] obstructs the other activators [residing in the depths of consciousness]. (1.50)
Upon the restriction of even this [activator, there ensues], owing to the restriction of all [contents of consciousness], the ecstasy without seed. (1.51)
II. Sâdhana-Pâda (“Chapter on the
Path of Realization”)
Asceticism (tapas), study (svâdhyâya), and devotion to the Lord (îshvara-pranidhâna) [constitute] the Yoga of Action (kriyâ-yoga). (2.1)
Comments: The words kriyâ and karma both mean “action.” but Kriyâ-Yoga is different from the Karma-Yoga of the Bhagavad-Gîtâ. Karma-Yoga is. as we have seen, the path of “inaction in action.” or ego-transcending activity. Patanjali’s Kriyâ-Yoga is the path of ecstatic identification with the Self by which the subliminal activators (samskâra), which maintain the individuated consciousness, are gradually eliminated.
[This Yoga has] the purpose of cultivating ecstasy and also the purpose of attenuating the causes- of-affliction (klesha). (2.2)
Ignorance, I-am-ness, attachment, aversion, and the will-to-live are the five causes-of-affliction. (2.3)
Comments: The Sanskrit terms for these five sources of suffering are: avidyâ, asmitâ, râga, dvesha, and abhinivesha.
Ignorance is the field of the other [causes, which can be] dormant, attenuated, intercepted, or aroused. (2.4)
Ignorance is seeing [that which is] eternal, pure, joyful, and [pertaining to] the Self as ephemeral, impure, sorrowful, and [pertaining to] the nonself (anâtman). (2.5)
Comments: The nonself (anâtman) is the egoic personality and its external environment.
I-am-ness is the identification as it were of the powers of vision (darshana) and of the Visioner (drik) (i.e., the Self). (2.6)
Attachment [is that which) rests on pleasant [experiences]. (2.7)
Aversion [is that which) rests on sorrowful [experiences]. (2.8)
The will-to-live, flowing along [by its] own inclination (rasa), is rooted thus even in the sages. (2.9)
The Yoga Tradition Page 44