The eighteen Mahâ (“Great”)-Purânas, each of which consists of tens of thousands of verses, are the Brahma- (also sometimes referred to as the Adi, “Original”)-, Padma-, Vishnu-, Vâyu-, Bhâgavata-, Nârada-, Mârkandeya-, Agni-, Bhavishya-, Brahma-Vaivarta-, Linga-, Varâha-, Skanda-, Vamâna-, Kûrma-, Matsya-, Garuda-, and Brahmânda- Purâna.
In addition to the Mahâ-Purânas, there are also eighteen Upa (“Secondary” or “Minor”)-Purânas, as well as a number of local compositions bearing the title Purâna. One of the most significant of these secondary texts is the Devî-Bhâgavata-Purâna, which is dedicated to the worship of the great Goddess.
All these works seek to instruct the faithful of the various religious traditions, and they have been most influential in the education of the masses. They purport to deal, ideally, with five principal themes. Usually they start with a mythological account of the creation (sarga) of the world. This is followed by a treatment of the world’s re-creation (pratisarga) after its destruction at the end of a cycle (kalpa). A third major topic is the genealogies (vamsha) of the seers and deities. Next in sequence of treatment is a mythological account of the cosmic eras called manvantara (“Manu interim”). These are the great cycles of existence, each of which has its own Manu, who, like the Hebrew Adam, gives birth to humankind. Lastly, the Purânas are supposed to deal with the genealogical histories (vamsha-anucarita1) of the royal dynasties.
Few Purânas conform to this traditional ideal of what are called the “five characteristics” (panca-lakshana), and most contain much extraneous matter, including brief treatments of yogic teachings. The types of Yoga discussed differ greatly, but they all tend to be integrally connected with the worship of particular deities, primarily Vishnu and Shiva. Not surprisingly, therefore, most of these teachings have a ritual character, though some texts offer a more contemplative type of Yoga.
The Brahma-Purâna deals with Yoga in Chapter 235 (stanzas 4-29). Here we can read that practitioners should first lovingly venerate their teacher and study the yogic scriptures as well as achieve competence in the Vedas, Purânas, and Itihâsas (histories). Then, after acquainting themselves with the dietary rules, the proper time and place for practice, and the faults (dosha) on the yogic path, they should begin the practice of Yoga (yoga-abhyâsa), transcending greed and the pairs of opposites (dvandva).
Practitioners are advised to avoid practicing with a distracted mind or when they are weary or hungry, or when it is too cold, too hot, or too windy. They should also avoid places that are too noisy or too close to water or fire, a dilapidated cow pen, crossroads, a place infested with crawling creatures, a cemetery, a river bank, a monastery, an anthill, a well, a spot covered with dry leaves, or an otherwise dangerous place. Those who ignore this advice are warned that they might encounter a variety of difficulties, including deafness, blindness, heaviness, loss of memory, dumbness, sluggishness, and fever. Suitable locations are a hermitage (âshrama), a vacant building in a quiet town free from fear, or an isolated, pure, and delightful temple.
“By means of exhalation in conjunction with the syllable hûm, the teacher [should gently] strike [the disciple’s] chest with a flower and enter into the disciple’s body.”
—Agni-Purâna 83.12
The best times for practicing Yoga are said to be the morning, noon, or the first or last yâma (three hours) of the night. Practitioners are further advised to sit on a seat that is neither too high nor too low, and facing east. At all times, they should keep the body from head to toes in an even posture. The recommended posture is the lotus posture (padma-âsana, written padmâsana), which entails gazing at the tip of the nose with halfclosed eyes. The eyes should be closed for meditation, however, and the favored procedure is meditation by means of the sacred syllable om. This involves placing the organs of action, the cognitive organs, and the five elements in the “knower of the field” (kshetra-jna), which is the universal Self as it resides in the finite body-mind (called the “field” or kshetra).
Those who become competent at this will be able to withdraw their senses as a turtle withdraws its limbs. Success in Yoga comes to those who abandon all sense objects and find the supreme Absolute, which is the pure purusha-uttama (written purushottama), the unsurpassable Spirit. This is also called the “fourth” (turya), which transcends the three states of waking, dreaming, and sleeping. In stanza 235.28, Yoga is defined as “the union of the mind and the senses [with the Self]” (manasash ca indriyânâm ca samyogah).
The Padma (“Lotus”)-Purâna, for instance, has an appendix to its last book, entitled “The Essence of the Ritual Yoga” (Kriyâ-Yoga-Sâra), which recommends that Vishnu should be worshiped not through meditation (dhyâna) but through prayers and sacrificial rites. In contrast, the Vishnu (“Pervader”)-Purâna, which deals with Yoga in its short sixth book, understands Yoga as the path of meditation. The only object fit to be contemplated is Vishnu, who alone grants eternal freedom.
The Vâyu (“Wind“)-Purâna, in its concluding chapters, introduces Yoga as a means of attaining “Shiva’s city” (shiva-pura), which corresponds to the Vaishnava notion of vaikuntha, Vishnu’s heavenly domain. Its particular approach is styled mâheshvara-yoga, meaning “Yoga of the great (mahâ) Lord (îshvara).” It consists of five elements (dharma): breath control (prânâyâma), meditation (dhyâna), sensory inhibition (pratyâhâra), concentration (dhâranâ), and recollection (smarana). Breath control, again, is of three degrees. The mild variety involves breath retention of twelve units (mâtrâ), the middle variety twenty-four, and the superior variety thirty-six. Full control of the life force obliterates all sins and bodily imperfections. Breath control leads to peace (shânti), tranquillity (prashânti), luminosity (dîpti), and clarity-grace (prasâda). Peace washes away the sins of one’s ancestors; tranquillity neutralizes personal sins; luminosity refers to vision of the past, present, and future; clarity-grace is the state of perfect contentment obtained through pacification of the senses and the mind, together with the five kinds of life force in the body. Sensory inhibition is here understood as the control of one’s desires, by which the influence of the external reality is overcome. Meditation reveals oneself to be as luminous as the sun. It produces the various supernormal powers, which are called “obstacles” (upasargas) and should be avoided. Everything in the realm of Nature can become an object of meditation, and the yogin is advised to meditate on the seven categories of existence one after the other and then leave them behind. The seven categories consist of the five elements, the lower mind (manas), and the higher mind (buddhi). Through the nonattachment gained from this practice, the yogin becomes able to focus exclusively on the Lord, Maheshvara, and thereby achieve the ultimate goal of liberation (apavarga).
The Bhâgavata-Purâna, which is replete with yogic materials, was briefly discussed in Chapter 2 in connection with Bhakti-Yoga, and was more fully treated in Chapter 12. Its Uddhâva-Gîtâ (see Source Reading 14) is an inspiring Yoga text for those pursuing the path of devotion.
The Linga (“Distinguishing Mark”)-Purâna introduces yogic concepts in Chapters 7-9. The term linga is often translated as “phallus,” but really it stands for the cosmic creative principle, which is the distinguishing mark of the Divine in the form of Shiva. According to legend, when Brahma and Vishnu sought to determine the extent of Shiva’s linga, they could not find its beginning or end. As Shiva himself explains in the Linga- Purâna (1.19.16), the linga is so called because at the end of time everything becomes dissolved (lîyate) in it.
In the eighth chapter of this Purâna, the eightfold Yoga, as first outlined by Patanjali, is said to arise from wisdom (jnâna), which is given by grace. Discipline (yama) is defined as abstention by way of austerity. Under self-restraint (niyama), the following ten practices are listed: cleanliness (shauca), sacrifice (ijyâ), asceticism (tapas), charity (dâna), study (svâdhyâya), control of the sexual organ (upastha-nigraha), ritual (vrata), fasting (upavâsa), silence (mauna), and bathing (snâna). Alternatively, se
lf-restraint is said to consist in noncraving (anîhâ), cleanliness, contentment (tushti), asceticism, recitation (japa) of Shiva’s name, and postures (âsana).
Sensory inhibition, again, is explained as dedication (pranidhâna) to Shiva in body, mind, and speech and unflinching devotion to one’s preceptor, as well as withdrawal of the senses from the external world. Concentration is fixation of the mind on an appropriate locus, while meditation is a natural product of concentration. Ecstasy is the state in which the supreme Consciousness alone shines forth as if there were no body.
Breath control is regarded as the root of the higher states. The mild degree of breath control is defined as twelve moments forming a single “stroke” (udghâta), the middle degree two such “strokes,” and the superior degree three. At each level of practice, breath control causes various symptoms, including sweating, shivering, dizziness, horripilation, and even levitation. As in many medieval Yoga texts, breath control is described as being of two basic types: sagarbha and agarbha, or “with seed” and “without seed.” Here the term garbha refers to mantra recitation.
In its ninth chapter, the Linga-Purâna gives a long list of obstacles and omens. The former include the paranormal powers (siddhi), which manifest when Yoga practice is pursued with vigor. Chapter 88 offers a review of this pâshupâta-yoga; the author of the Linga- Purâna claims that only this type of Yoga can yield the eight great paranormal powers, here called aishvarya.
The Kûrma (“Tortoise”)-Purâna, named after Vishnu’s incarnation as a tortoise, contains many fascinating myths about Vishnu, but also about Shiva. In its second part, we find two well-known Bhagavad-Gîtâ “imitations”—the Îshvara-Gîtâ and the longer Vyâsa- Gîtâ. The former didactic song has a detailed commentary by the philosopher-yogin Vijnâna Bhikshu, who even felt that since this text contains all the salient ideas of the Bhagavad-Gîtâ, he could dispense with a commentary on it.
The Agni (“Fire”)Purâna, a massive but late work that is more encyclopedic in character than the other Purânas, contains extensive information about rituals, including mantra recitation, mudrâs (hand gestures), the construction of yantras (mystic diagrams similar to the circular mandatas), and prânâyâma (ritual breath control). Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga is explained in Chapters 352-358.
An important place is assigned to Yoga in the Garuda (“Eagle”)-Purâna, which dedicates three whole chapters (viz. 14, 49, and 118) to the eightfold path. This Vaishnava scripture was probably created in its present form around 900 C.E. It defines tapas as sense control rather than penance, and it mentions only two meditation postures: the lotus posture and the bound lotus posture (baddha-padma-âsana2). Concentration, again, is said to be of the duration of eighteen cycles of breath control, whereas meditation is twice that long, and the unbroken chain of ten cycles of concentration leads to ecstasy (samâdhi). This text also refers to Bhakti-Yoga and to Tantric Yoga.
The voluminous Shiva-Purâna deals with Yoga in different places. Thus, in Chapter 17 of the first book, the Yoga of mantric recitation is introduced. 1,080,000,000 repetitions of the sacred mantra om are said to lead to the mastery of “purified Yoga” (shuddha-yoga), which is synonymous with liberation. The text further explains that shiva-yogins are of three types. First there is the kriyâ-yogin, who engages in sacred rites (kriyâ), and then there is the tapo-yogin, who pursues asceticism (tapas). Last there is the japa-yogin, who observes the practices of the other two types, but who in addition constantly recites the holy five-syllabled mantra “Om, obeisance to Shiva” (om namah shivâya).
Yoga makes its appearance again in Chapters 37-39 of the concluding book of the Shiva-Purâna, where it is defined as the restraint of all activities, and mental concentration upon Shiva. Five types or degrees are distinguished:
Mantra-Yoga is the focusing of attention by means of the sacred five-syllabled invocation of Shiva (mentioned above).
Sparsha-Yoga (“Contact Yoga”) is Mantra- Yoga coupled with the control of the life force (prânâyâama).
Bhâva-Yoga (“Yoga of Being”) is a higher form of Mantra-Yoga, where contact with the mantra is lost and consciousness enters a subtle dimension of existence.
Abhâva-Yoga (“Yoga of Non-being”) is the practice of meditation upon the universe in its entirety, associated with the transcendence of object-related awareness.
Mahâ-Yoga (“Great Yoga”) is the contemplation of Shiva without any restricting conditions.
The Mârkandeya-Purâna, which derives its name from Sage Mârkandeya, a central figure in this narrative, belongs to the fourth or fifth century C.E. and is deemed one of the oldest texts of this genre. It speaks of Yoga in Chapters 36-43 and addresses in detail the qualities of an individual suited for Yoga, and also the environmental conditions necessary for success in its practice. The body is recognized as an important instrument on the spiritual path. This Purâna, moreover, offers an original measure for assessing yogic perfection: There should be no fear in the yogin toward other beings, and other beings should not fear him.
Yogins are subdivided according to the prevalence of one of the three primary constituents (guna) of Nature. They are also distinguished by their achievement on the path. Thus, at the bhrama (“roaming”) stage, the yogin’s mind is fickle, impeding his progress. At the prâtibha (“understanding”) stage, the yogin comprehends all the sacred scriptures and other branches of knowledge. At the shravana (“listening”) stage, he understands the significance of the different realms of existence. At the daiva (“divine”) stage, he perceives higher beings, such as the deities (deva).
Lastly, the Devî-Bhâgavata-Purâna of the Vaishnavas, which almost resembles a Tantra, is a repository of spiritual wisdom relating to Goddess worship. It too includes sections about Yoga. What makes this work, which was probably composed in the twelfth century C.E., particularly interesting is its high appraisal of the female gender. This is given the authority of tradition in a legend according to which Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva had to be transmuted into women before they could behold Devî in her supreme form. As is known from the context of actual Tantric ritual, female initiates (called bhairavîs) once played a signal role in the transmission of Tantric teachings.
Indeed, from one perspective, the kundalinî-shakti can be seen as an internalized symbol of the initiatory function of these female adepts. The technical term kundalinî is, in fact, a feminine word, and so is the term sushumnâ, which refers to the axial pathway through which the kundalinî power surges upward into the psychoenergetic center at the crown of the head. According to the Devî-Bhâgavata, like other Tantric scriptures, the seven psychoenergetic centers strung like pearls on the axial pathway are all associated with female deities. The Yoga of this Upa-Purâna, not surprisingly, integrates love and devotion with the psychotechnology characteristic of the Tantric approach.
Thus, the Purânas contain records of, and references to, a variety of yogic schools. Some of these schools follow, more or less strictly, Patanjali’s model of the eightfold path, though occasionally they interpret the eight limbs differently from that great Yoga authority. What distinguishes them most markedly from Patanjali’s tradition, however, is that they all propose a single ultimate principle, the Self or God.
Purânic Yoga has been little researched, though fortunately all the major Purânas are available in more or less reliable English translations, and other texts of this literary genre continue to be rendered into English under the Indian Translation Series program, which is jointly sponsored by the government of India and UNESCO. When completed, the “Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology Series,” translated by a board of scholars and published by Motilal Banarsidass in Delhi, will comprise one hundred volumes. The fund of myths and legends preserved in these scriptures is a perennial inspiration to the Yoga student.
SOURCE READING 15
The Mârkandeya-Purâna (Selection)
The following excerpt is from the fortieth chapter of the Mârkandeya-Purâna, where Sage Dattâtreya instructs
his disciple Alarka. It conveys a sense of the ritualized nature of this yogic teaching.
He should set his foot only after [the path in front of him] has been purified by the eye. He should drink only water filtered through cloth, only utter words purified by truth, and only think of what has been purified completely by wisdom (buddhi). (4)
The knower of Yoga should nowhere be a guest, and he should not participate in ancestor worship, sacrifices, pilgrimages to [the shrines of] deities, and festivals. He also should not mix with the crowd for purposes of demonstration. (5)
The knower of Yoga should wander about begging [his daily sustenance] and live off what he finds in the refuse. [He should beg) at places where no smoke arises [from the hearth], where the coal is extinguished, and among all those who have already eaten, but also not continually among these three. (6)
Since the crowd despises and mocks him because of this, the yogin should, yoked [in Yoga], tread the path of the virtuous, [so that he might] not be tarnished. (7)
He should seek alms among the householders and the huts of mendicant monks: Their mode of life is considered the foremost and best. (8)
The ascetic (yati) should furthermore also always stay [close to] the pious, self-controlled, and magnanimous householders versed in the Vedas. (9)
In addition [he should stay close to] the innocent and non-outcastes. Begging among the casteless is the lowest mode of life that he could wish. (10)
The begged food [may consist of] gruel, diluted buttermilk or milk, barley broth, fruit, roots, millet, com. oil-cake, or groats. (11)
And these are pleasant eatables that support the yogin’s [struggle for] perfection (siddhi). The sage should turn to them with devotedness and highest concentration (samâdhi). (12)
The Yoga Tradition Page 58