Varâha-Upanishad27
The Varâha (“Boar”)-Upanishad, which is a late Vaishnava composition, has 263 verses distributed over five chapters. It begins with an enumeration of the 96 categories (tattva) of existence. Vishnu, as the Boar (one of his incarnations), is said to be beyond all categories. Those who take refuge in him become liberated even while alive in the body.
The second and third chapters are a discourse on Vedânta metaphysics, which culminates in the recommendation to contemplate Vishnu in the manner of Bhakti-Yoga. Devotion to the Lord is regarded as the true means of liberation, but Kundalinî-Yoga is also advised.
The fourth chapter explains the seven stages of wisdom, which are also mentioned in the Yoga-Vâsishtha (discussed in Chapter 14). The nature and life of the yogin who is embodied yet liberated is described. The Upanishad speaks of two approaches— that of the bird, as followed by the sage Shuka, and that of the ant, as followed by the sage Vâmadeva. The former course leads to instant liberation (sadyo-mukti), whereas the latter orientation results in gradual liberation (krama-mukti).
The fifth chapter, which originally was probably an independent treatise that came to be appended to the Varâha-Upanishad, is a longer treatment of Hatha-Yoga. Its author recognizes only three types of Yoga—Laya-Yoga, Hatha-Yoga, and Mantra-Yoga, which should all be mastered. This compound Yoga has eight limbs that match those specified by Patanjali. Its goal is enlightenment in this lifetime.
Shândilya-Upanishad28
The same eightfold Yoga as above is taught in the Shândilya-Upanishad, which is a slightly shorter work than the Varâha-Upanishad and has a mixture of metric and prose passages. It covers much the same ground as the other texts dealing specifically with Hatha-Yoga concepts and techniques, but again insists on the complementarity of self-knowledge (jnâna) and yogic practice. A considerable amount of space is devoted to the channels (nâdî) of the life force. Their purification is seen as preparatory for the higher practices of concentration and meditation, by which the vibrations (spanda) of the mind are brought under control. The text includes interesting descriptions of methods that the yogin is asked to use in order to control and manipulate the life force (prâna) in the body. Also a long list of paranormal powers is given.
The last two of the three chapters of this Upanishad appear to have been appended. The teachings are ascribed to the sage Shândilya, after whom this work is named.
Tri-Shikhi-Brâhmana-Upanishad29
The Tri-Shikhi (“Triple Tuft”)-Brâhmana-Upanishad is similar to the Shândilya-Upanishad both in style and content, though is about half as long. It gets its title from the unnamed brahmin wearing three tufts of hair who received the teachings given in this work directly from God Shiva. The Upanishad starts with an exposition of Vedânta metaphysics and then recommends a combination of Jnâna-Yoga and Karma-Yoga (or Kriyâ-Yoga) for the seeker after liberation. It interprets the latter as strict attention to the observances laid down in the scriptures, which presumably means the works of Hatha-Yoga, for the rest of this Vaishnava text covers much the same ground as the above-mentioned works.
Darshana- Upanishad30
The Darshana (“Vision/System”)-Upanishad, which runs over thirty pages in translation, presents itself as the teaching given by Lord Dattâtreya to the sage Samkriti. The title suggests that this is intended as a kind of summary of existing teachings, which probably makes this one of the latest texts of this genre of literature. The Darshana-Upanishad expounds Hatha- Yoga on the basis of Patanjali’s eightfold path. It defines all the limbs (anga) and speaks of ten moral disciplines (yama) and ten self-restraints (niyama) rather than the five introduced by Patanjali. Under âsana, it describes nine postures, which, with the exception of the peacock posture, appear to be primarily meditation âsanas. The text mentions, however, that the lotus posture (padma- âsana) can conquer all diseases and that the auspicious posture (bhadra-âsana) also is capable of removing diseases and the effects of poison.
Under prânâyâma, the Darshana-Upanishad (section 4) gives a reasonably detailed description of subtle anatomy, which offers no new information. It does, however, relate the circulation of the life force in the body to the course of the sun through the zodiac, and it also speaks of the various somatic loci for yogic concentration as “pilgrimage centers” (tîrtha). Thus, Shrî- Parvata is located in the head; Kedâra in the forehead; Varanasi (Benares) at the spot midway between the eyebrows; Kurukshetra (the sacred place of the Bhârata war) in the chest; Prayâga (the confluence of the holy rivers Gangâ, Yamunâ, and Sârasvatî) at the heart; Cidambara at the center of the heart; and Kamalâlaya at the base of the spine. These internal pilgrimage centers are said to be superior to any external pilgrimage centers, but the Self (âtman) alone is the tîrtha that is of ultimate significance.
In addition to the conventional definition of sense- withdrawal (pratyâhâra), the Darshana-Upanishad (section 7) also offers several other interpretations of this aspect of the yogic path. For instance, it explains it as “seeing the Absolute (brahman) in everything” and as the confinement of the life force to certain parts of the body. Concentration (dhâranâ) is understood as focusing upon the five material elements as they manifest in the body or, alternatively, as concentration upon the Self. Meditation (dhyâna), again, is contemplation of the Self, which is none other than the Absolute. Finally, ecstasy (samâdhi) is explained as the realization of the identity of the individual self (jîva-âtman) with the supreme Self (parama-âtman). This grand recognition is epitomized in the declaration “I am only Shiva.” It reveals the world to be mere illusion.
In general the approach of this text is refreshingly systematic. Nevertheless, this late scripture does not add anything significant to our knowledge of Hatha-Yoga.
Yoga-Cûdâ-Mani-Upanishad31
The last work to be examined here is the Yoga- Cûdâ-Mani (“Crest-Jewel of Yoga”)-Upanishad. It teaches a sixfold Yoga but fails to describe the higher stages of yogic practice. The reason for this is that it is a text fragment, namely the earlier portion of the Goraksha-Paddhati, which is an important Hatha- Yoga manual (see Source Reading 21).
This concludes our survey of the psychotechnology of the so-called Yoga-Upanishads. Their revealed teachings offer a convenient transition to Tantra and Hatha-Yoga discussed in Chapters 17 and 18. But before we turn to these two fascinating interdependent traditions, I would like to conclude Part Four with a short excursion into Yoga in Sikhism.
“O Beloved! You are mind-bedazzling, good looking, life-giving, beautiful, radiant, caring, compassionate, unfathomable, and immeasurable.”
—di-Granth (5.542)
I. OVERVIEW
Sikhism, which has some thirteen million adherents, is the religio-spiritual tradition founded by Guru Nânak (1469-1538 C.E.), who was born into a family of the kshatriya (“warrior”) class in a small village near Lahore. The Prakrit word sikh is related to the Sanskrit word shishya meaning “disciple,” and the Sikhs understand themselves as disciples of God. As Guru Râm Dâs (1534—1581 C.E.) affirmed:
My true Guru is eternal and everlasting.
He is free from birth and death.
He is the immortal Spirit,
and is all-pervasive.
Discipleship also extends to the great masters of the Sikh tradition, who through their pure lives experienced the full grace of the Divine and were totally surrendered to God, who is typically called Wâhi Guru (“Hail Teacher”). Their teachings, therefore, are regarded as untarnished by ignorance and egotism and consequently can safely guide others on the path to God.
According to tradition, one day during his morning ablutions Guru Nânak disappeared in the water and was considered drowned. He was absent for three days and three nights, and during this time he was removed into the presence of God and was charged with his life’s mission to teach humanity to pray. He also was commanded to always praise the divine Name (nâm, Sanskrit: nâma) and practice charity (dân, Sanskrit: dâna), service (sevâ), p
rayer (simran, Sanskrit: smarana or “remembrance”), and ablution (ishnân, Sanskrit: snâna).
When Nânak, aged thirty, returned, he began his mission with the words, “There is no Hindu; there is no Mussulman [Muslim].” This utterance poignantly characterizes the embracing syncretism of Sikhism, which represents a synthesis of Hindu devotionalism and Islamic Sufism. The Hindu element predominates, and the Muslim aspect of Sikhism manifests primarily in the monotheistic creed and the rejection of idol worship and the caste system.
Guru Nânak lived in an era of great social turmoil when Northern India was governed by Lodhi Afghans, and his gospel of peace and love is one of the most remarkable offshoots of the great bhakti movement of medieval India. He was especially influenced by Kabîr, and some scholars have speculated that Kabîr was his teacher. Many Hindus consider Sikhism as part of Hinduism, and many Sikhs do so as well.
His immediate successor, Angad, and the third guru, Amar Dâs, were competent teachers but they do not stand out particularly. The fourth lineage guru, Râm Dâs, however, achieved fame for laying the foundations of the famous Golden Temple (known as Harimandir or “Temple of Hari”) in the middle of a pond in Amritsar (“Lake of Immortality”), which is to this day a popular pilgrimage center for the Sikhs. By the time of the fifth guru, Arjun Dev (1581-1606 C.E.), the community had grown considerably in size and influence, so that he was able to organize the Sikhs into a state over which he ruled in royal fashion. Arjun Dev also collected the religious poems of his predecessors and, together with his own compositions, created the di Granth (“Original Book”). He was imprisoned by the Muslims and drowned himself to avoid the ignominy of execution.
His successor, Har Gobind (1606-1645 C.E.), sought revenge by fighting a fierce guerrilla war against the Moghuls. Fighting and internal conflict continued through the reigns of the remaining gurus, ending the pacifist phase of Sikhism. In particular, Gobind Singh (1666-1708 C.E.), the last of the original line of ten gurus, transformed the Sikh community into an efficient military brotherhood (khalsa) trained to defend its faith and cultural/political integrity against the Muslims. He outlawed the caste system and required that his followers adopt the surname Singh (Sanskrit: simha, “lion”) and, if male, demonstrate their allegiance by wearing the “Five K’s” (panc-kakâr, Sanskrit: panca- kakâra): long hair (kesh, Sanskrit: kesha), a comb (kangha), a steel bracelet (kara), a dagger (kirpani), and short pants (kaccha). Those who refused to join his sect came to be known as Sahajdharis, meaning something like “those who take it easy.”
Govind Singh composed the Dasvan Pâdshâh Kâ Granth (“Book of the Tenth King”), which must be carefully distinguished from the di-Granth and which was considered authoritative only by his followers. Only a single poem by this warlike guru found its way into the di-Granth. With India’s independence in 1947, the separation of Bharat (India) from Pakistan drew a brutal line through the middle of the Punjab, the Sikh’s homeland, and many members of the community migrated from the new Muslim state of Pakistan to Bharat, where they live an uncertain life.
After Govind Singh’s death, the sacred scripture rather than any king-priest was given the role of guru, and all Sikhs are expected to venerate and follow the di-Granth, also known as the Guru-Granth-Sahib (“Teacher Book of the Lord”). Every line of the di- Granth is set to music, which affords a parallel to the Sâma-Veda of the Hindus. Like the far older Vedic hymns, the Sikh hymns spring from inner illumination and thus represent revealed knowledge.
II. THE YOGA OF UNITY
The Sikh creed is expressed in the very first hymn of the di-Granth, which is known as the Japji or Mûl- Mantra and is to be recited every morning by the faithful. It begins with the following words:
There exists only one God, who is called the True, the Creator, free from fear and hate, immortal, not begotten, self-existent, great, and compassionate. The True was at the beginning, the True was in the distant past. O Nânak, the True exists in the present and the True will also exist in the future.
This hymn, which was composed by Guru Nânak, clearly enunciates that God is both transcendent and immanent, pure Being and simultaneously the Creator. The visible and invisible dimensions of existence are all outpourings of the Divine, which is immanent in them. In slight modification of a statement by Nânak we can say that God is writer, tablet, pen, and writing. God also is the sole creator of the three primary qualities (guna) of Nature through which illusion (mâyâ) and delusion (moha) entered the world.
Because God is truly all-comprising, his flawless unity is not fractured by attributing to him such qualities as creatorship, compassion, love, justice, equality. Yet, Sikhism vigorously rejects idolizing the Divine and forbids depicting or worshiping God in any limiting image. God’s mystery is inexhaustible and unfathomable.
Under the influence of illusion (mâyâ) and the ego (haumai, Sanskrit: ahamkâra), we fail to realize God’s perfect unity and instead experience duality where there is but the one great Being. To discover God’s true nature, which is singular, we must cultivate constant remembrance of His name (nâm, Sanskrit: nâma), which is a form of Bhakti-Yoga. The divine name is of central importance in Sikhism and is said to be the “nectar” (amrit, Sanskrit: amrita) that is sweeter than honey and more precious than even the wish-fulfilling gem known to mythology. Without remembrance of the divine name (nâm-simran), the human body is little more than a corpse, and whatever we do leads only to bondage and suffering. Nânak wrote in Rag-Sorath:
God’s name still has all my cravings,
and the Guru has revealed to me the Lord’s mansion
within my own mind, which is completely peaceful.
He also wrote in Rag-Siri:
Your name alone allows people to cross the ocean of existence.
This is my only hope, my only foundation.
And in Rag-Asa:
By repeating God’s name I live, and I die by forgetting it.
Curiously, the practice of remembrance of the divine name is nowhere defined in the sacred canon, and it must be learned by associating with the community of faithful practitioners. As in Buddhism, the divine Guru is compared to a physician who prescribes the correct remedy for the disease called “ego” and thus lays the foundation for a disciple’s ultimate healing. That healing consists in realizing that we are all one and the same Being and in living this realization in the practical details of daily life.
The disciple must walk the path (panth, Sanskrit: patha) himself or herself by surrendering to the divine will (hukam) as manifested in the sacred scripture. This consists, first of all, in diligently practicing the presence of God, that is, feeling the Divine everywhere and aspiring to realize the divine qualities of love, compassion, equality, etc., in one’s own life. This inevitably leads one to adopt a lifestyle that has integrity, including proper, honest livelihood (kirt karni), as well as sharing the fruit of one’s labors generously with others without any expectation of reward—a practice called vand cakna. Here Sikhism fully endorses the ideal of Karma- Yoga. An integral part of Sikh morality is the practice of equality, which ignores caste rules and class privileges. Right conduct (sat acar, Sanskrit: sad-âcâra), wrote Nânak, is even more important than the truth. It is liberating in itself.
Remembrance of the divine name is often practiced as recitation (japna, Sanskrit: japa) of the various names of God. As Nânak declared in his Sukhamani- Sahib (16.5):
The name of God supports all creatures,
As well as the universe and its features.
The name supports nether regions and skies,
The people and the homes they occupy.
The urge for His name inspired Smritis, Vedas and Puranas;
Those who listen are saved by the name, and reach Nirvana.
The name supports the three worlds and fourteen spheres;
Man will be saved by attending to the name with his ears.
Nânak says:
When by God’s mercy a man assimilates the name,
&n
bsp; Spirituality’s heights he shall surely gain.1
Sikhs are expected to resort daily to the power of sat-sangat (Sanskrit: sat-sanga), the company of the true or virtuous, which helps them adhere to the principles of the path, especially equality among all people. As Nânak affirms in the Rag-Wadhans, “Those who love God love everybody.” And Nânak uncompromisingly rejected the caste system and other forms of social disparity, including the inequality between men and women. Nânak especially denounced the ascetical notion of women as evil, pointing out that without women the human race would not exist and that only the Lord himself is independent of the female gender, just as he is independent of the male gender. The egalitarian philosophy of Sikhism is best epitomized in the architectural symbolism of the Golden Temple, which has portals on all four sides suggesting that people from all directions (and walks of life) are welcome to enter.
Sangat also entails listening to praiseful chanting (Sanskrit: samkîrtana) accompanied by music that opens the heart to the great truths of the teaching.
Yoga, for Guru Nânak, consists in meditating on God and remaining detached in the midst of one’s daily activities. He strongly criticized sham ascetics, miracle- working yogins, and those living in isolation or going about naked. He admonished them in the Japji as follows:
May contentment be their earrings,
modesty their begging bowl,
The Yoga Tradition Page 64