The most outstanding (translated) Kaula texts are the Kula-Arnava-Tantra, the Kaula-Jnâna-Nirnaya attributed to Matsyendra Nâtha, and the Mahânirvâna-Tantra.
The closely related Kubjikâ tradition, which may have developed after the original Kaula tradition, produced a large number of texts, most of which seem to have been lost. Of the extant works, the most significant are the Kubjikâ-Mata-Tantra and the Goraksha-Samhitâ (which is distinct from the Hatha-Yoga manual). Both remain untranslated.
For its pervasive influence, Shankara’s nanda-Laharî, noted earlier, deserves further mention. This is a devotional hymn dedicated to the Goddess Tripurâ. Its superlative importance can be gauged from the fact that there are still thirty-six of its commentaries extant today. The nanda-Laharî has been translated into English together with its complement, the Saundarya-Laharî, also attributed to Shankara, the famous Advaita teacher.17 This attribution is questioned by many scholars, and Shankara (apart from being an epithet of Shiva) is a fairly common name for spiritual preceptors. The same doubt prevails relative to Shankara’s authorship of the voluminous Prapanca-Sâra-Tantra.
The thousands of Tantric texts composed in Sanskrit, Tamil, and vernacular languages demonstrate the incredible versatility in thought and practice of many generations of adepts. Western students of this ramifying tradition have barely scratched the surface of this literature, never mind the sophisticated psychotechnology described in it. Therefore, it behooves us to be careful in our judgments about this tradition. As the Buddhist scholar Herbert V. Guenther reminds us, “What the Tantras say must be lived in order to be understood.”18 And David Gordon White, who wrote a definitive monograph on the medieval Siddha movement, has characterized Tantra as “a wave of genius … that has yet to be stilled.”19
II. THE HIDDEN REALITY
It is a fundamental premise of all esoteric schools of thought that the world we perceive through our ordinary senses is only a minute slice of a much larger reality and that there are many more subtle planes of existence. Today we can understand this idea in terms of the metaphor of spectral wave bands, or frequencies of vibration. The distinct levels of existence proposed by traditional esotericism may be viewed as different aspects of the same cosmos vibrating at different rates. Thus, the psyche and mind, which exist on the “subtle” plane, are thought to vibrate many times faster than the material objects of the “gross” plane of space-time. The subtle dimension or dimensions of reality form a fifth axis to the four axes of ordinary space and time, namely length, breadth, height, and duration.
We can perhaps better understand these invisible “higher” dimensions of existence by referring to the new worldview formulated by quantum physicists. Quantum physics operates very comfortably with the notion of electrons and other atomic particles, and yet no one has ever seen of them directly. The British physicist Harold Schilling proposed that we look upon reality as “a cybernetic network of circuits … more like a delicate fabric than an edifice of brick and mortar.”20 But it is a network that has “interior depth.” In fact, when we look at the inner hierarchy of reality, we perceive, as Schilling put it, “depth within depth within depth”—an ultimately unfathomable, mysterious well of existence.
As we have seen, Patanjali’s philosophy, too, subscribes to the view that there is an “inner” dimension to the universe: The objects we see have an invisible “depth.” That depth is progressively disclosed to yogins through their sustained effort to internalize their awareness. They experience subtle regions and nonmaterial entities of which modern science knows next to nothing, though thanatologists (death researchers) encounter similar ideas in the reports of subjects who have undergone near-death experiences.
The hidden dimension of macrocosmic existence, of the universe at large, has its precise parallel in the microcosm of the human body-mind. The “deep structures” of the body share in the “deep structures” of its larger environment. All esoteric traditions assume that there is a correspondence between inner and outer reality, and we also encounter the same idea in C. G. Jung’s notion of synchronicity, which is really an attempt to explain the fact that there is an occasional surprising coincidence between external events and psychic conditions. For instance, we may recount to a friend a dream we had the previous night about a rare butterfly, and just as we are describing the butterfly, our friend presents us with a gift. When we open the package, we find a book whose cover has a picture of the same type of butterfly.
The Subtle Body
The earliest explicit model of the inner hierarchy is that of the five “sheaths” (kosha)—a doctrine expounded, as we have seen, in the ancient Taittirîya- Upanishad. This model is generally accepted by the schools of Vedânta and other nondualist traditions, like Tantra. At any rate, it is widely held in and outside India that the physical body has a subtle counterpart made not of gross matter but of a finer substance, or energy. The “anatomy” and “physiology” of that supra-physical double—the so-called “astral body” or “subtle body” (sûkshma-sharîra)—was made the subject of intense yogic investigation particularly in the traditions of Hatha-Yoga and Tantra in general.
The Tantric literature is filled with descriptions of the “centers” (cakra) and “currents/pathways” (nâdî) that are the basic structures of the subtle body. We will examine this in more detail shortly. Modern physicians typically dismiss these “organs” as entirely fictional, the products of an overheated imagination or an inadequate knowledge of anatomy. Others have suggested that they are merely “maps” for concentration and meditation, or that the cakras are created in consciousness through visualization. This point of view is apparently expressed even in some Tantric works, the nanda-Laharî among them. In general, however, the organs of the subtle vehicle are thought to be as real as the organs of the physical body. Hence they are visible to clairvoyant sight.
But far more than the physical heart, lungs, or liver, the cakras and nâdîs are subject to great variation. They may be more or less active and more or less well defined. These differences reflect a person’s psychospiritual condition. This explains, in part at least, why the enumerations and descriptions of the cakras, as given in various texts, do not always tally. Another reason for these textual variations is that the descriptions are intended to be models for the yogin. We can regard them as idealized versions of actual structures of the subtle body which are meant to guide the yogin’s visualization and contemplation. Thus, the depiction of the cakras as lotuses whose petals are inscribed with Sanskrit letters is clearly an idealization, not an empirical observation, but it is an idealization based on actual perception: The activated cakras are, as the Sanskrit word suggests, “wheels” of energy, with radiant spokes that lend themselves to representation as lotus petals.
The Life Force (Prâna)
The form of “energy” composing the cakras and currents in the subtle body is unknown to science. The Hindus call it prâna, which means literally “life,” that is, “life force.” The Chinese call it chi, the Polynesians mana, the Amerindians orenda, and the ancient Germans od. It is an all-pervasive “organic” energy. In modern times, it was psychiatrist Wilhelm Reich who attempted to resuscitate this notion in his concept of the orgone, but he only met with hostility from the scientific establishment. More recently, Russian parapsychologists have introduced the notion of bioplasma, which is explained as a radiant energy field interpenetrating physical organisms.
While Western science is still struggling to find explanations for such phenomena as acupuncture meridians, kundalinî awakenings, and Kirlian photography, yogins continue to explore and enjoy the pyrotechnics of the subtle body, as they have done for hundreds of generations. Some of their ideas have already fertilized current pioneering research in bioenergy, and I believe it is only a matter of time before the emergent scientific paradigm will generate a comprehensive model of bioenergic fields that can also help us understand and vindicate some of the stranger practices of Hatha-Yoga.
Accord
ing to the authorities of Yoga, the universal life force is focalized in the individual subtle body, where it branches out into five primary and five secondary energy flows, each with its own specialized function.
Prâna (“breath” or “in-breath,” lit. “breathing forth”) — draws the life force into the body (chiefly through the act of inhalation); it is generally thought to be located in the upper half of the trunk, especially in the heart region but also in the head.
Apâna (“out-breath”) - expels the life force (mainly through the act of exhalation); it is associated with the navel and the abdomen but also the anal and genital area.
Vyâna (“through-breath”) - distributes and circulates the life force (chiefly through the action of the heart and lungs); it is always present even when the activity of prâna and apâna is for some reason suspended; it is widely thought to pervade the entire body.
Samâna (“mid-breath”) — is responsible for the assimilation of nutrients; it is located in the digestive system.
Udâna (“up-breath”) — is primarily responsible for speech but also for belching (which has traditionally been looked upon as a positive sign that the food or drink is being digested properly); it is specifically connected with the throat.
Different scriptures explain these five energies somewhat differently, and also give different locations for them within the body. The above version is the most common.
The five auxiliary bioenergetic functions, or upa-prânas, are:
Nâga (“serpent”) — causes vomiting or belching.
Kûrma (“tortoise”) — effects the closing and opening of the eyelids.
Kri-kâra (“kri-maker”) — causes hunger.
Deva-datta (“god-given”) — effects yawning or sleep.
Dhanam-jaya (“conqueror of wealth”) — is responsible for the disintegration of the dead organism.
Again, there is no unanimity about the precise functions of these subsidiary energies in the body. The two most important species of the life force are obviously prâna and apâna, which underlie the breathing process. Their incessant activity is seen as the principal cause for the restlessness of the mind, and their stoppage is the main purpose of breath control (prânâyâma). Further details are given in Chapter 18 in connection with the Hatha-Yoga path of realization.
The Circuitry of the Subtle Body
Rather like electricity, the life force (prâna) condensed in the subtle body travels along pathways called nâdî in Sanskrit. The word means “duct” or “conduit,” but the nâdîs must not be mistaken for tubular structures, even though some traditional Yoga texts give this impression. Nor are they identical to the veins and arteries or even the nerves. The nâdîs are energy currents, distinguishable flow patterns within the luminous energy field that is the subtle body. The classical drawings of the network of nâdîs fail to convey the living, vibrant radiance of the supraphysical vehicle that, to the trained eye, looks like a shimmering, shifting mass of light with foci of different color, and sometimes dark areas suggesting physical weaknesses, perhaps even disease.
Commonly, the Yoga scriptures mention 72,000 nâdîs in all. Some speak of as many as 300,000. Several of the Yoga-Upanishads name nineteen of them and even give their respective locations, but the names and positions do not always match. The above diagram shows the arrangement of the thirteen principal nâdîs based on various Hatha-Yoga texts. The view is from above, looking down into the body.
All the nâdîs originate at the “bulb” (kanda, kânda), a structure shaped “like a hen’s egg,” which, according to some texts, is between the anus and the penis (or clitoris), while others locate it in the region of the navel.
The Three Principal Circuits: Sushumnâ, Idâ, and Pingalâ
There are three chief pathways that are universally recognized in the yogic literature. The central or axial pathway, which runs along the spine, is known as the sushum-na-nâdî, which means “she who is most gracious.” It is also called brahma-nâdî, because it is the trajectory of the ascending kundalinî-shakti, the awakened “serpent power,” leading to liberation in the Absolute (brahman).
Some works speak of a channel within the sushumnâ, which they call vajrâ (“thunderbolt”)-nâdî, and within that channel another still subtler one known as the citrini (“shining”)-nâdî. This term conveys the idea that within this innermost conduit or flow the yogin locates the radiance of Consciousness (cit) itself.
To the left of the axial current lies the idâ-nâdî, and to the right lies the pingalâ-nâdî. The former derives its name from being “pale,” the latter from being “reddish.” They are respectively symbolized by the cool moon and the hot sun. These pathways wind around the sushumnâ, forming a helical stairway. They meet at each of the six lower cakras and terminate at the center situated behind and between the eyebrows. Only the sushumnâ extends all the way from the bottom cakra to the crown center.
The Tantric yogin’s principal challenge is to stabilize the flow of bioenergy in the central pathway. So long as the life force oscillates up and down the idd and pingalâ, attention is externalized, that is, the yogin’s consciousness is dominated by the “lunar” and “solar” forces. By forcing the life energy (prâna) along the axial channel, the yogin stimulates the dormant kundalinî energy until it rushes upward like a volcanic eruption, flooding the crown center and thereby leading to the desired condition of blissful ecstasy (samâdhi). According to a widespread esoteric explanation, the word hatha signifies the union of “sun” and “moon,” that is, the convergence of the life force that ordinarily travels along the idâ and the pingalâ pathways.
The kundalinî has repeatedly been mentioned in these pages, and more will be said about it shortly. Here it is important to point out that the life force, which is responsible for the functioning of the body-mind, and the kundalinî-shakti are both an aspect of the Divine Power or Shakti. If we compare the life force to electricity, the kundalinî can be likened to a high-voltage electric charge. Or if we regard the life force as a pleasant breeze, the kundalinî is comparable to a hurricane.
Once the kundalinî power is unleashed in the body, it produces far-reaching changes in one’s physical and mental being. If properly managed, this incredible power can, as the adepts of Tantra and Hatha-Yoga promise us, refashion the body-mind into a “divine” vehicle, a transubstantiated form capable of incredible feats.
Knowledge of the functioning of the idâ- and pingalâ-nâdîs is deemed elementary in Hatha-Yoga. Their activity governs, on the physical level, the responses of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems respectively. Thus, through controlled breathing in which the life force is guided along the pingalâ, yogins can speed up their heart rate and metabolism and improve the functioning of eyes and ears. On the other side, through controlled breathing in which the life force is conducted along the idâ, yogins can greatly slow down their metabolism. This practice can be pushed to the point where expert yogins can, as has been conclusively demonstrated on a number of occasions, remain underground in an airtight container for hours and even days.
But the rationale of breath control (prânâyâma) is a different one: Authentic yogins do not merely seek to stop their breath and heart and bring about a hibernating condition but to transcend the human condition as such. They want to go beyond the conditioning of the body-mind and break through into the domain of transcendental Being-Consciousness-Bliss. For this, they need to focus the life force like a laser beam and channel it along the spinal axis toward the crown of the head, which is the location of a major esoteric center.
The Seven Psychoenergetic Centers (Cakra)
There are seven major cakras in all, which are arranged vertically along the axial channel. These are pools of life energy, vibrating at different rates. Each cakra is associated with specific psychosomatic functions, but these energy whirls must not be confused with the nerve plexuses of the physical body with which they are, however, correlated. From the base up, the sequence of cakras
is as follows:
Mûlâdhâra (“root support,” from mûla or “root” and âdhâra or “support”) — Situated at the perineum, this center, which is also called simply âdhâra, is associated with the earth element, the sense of smell, the lower limbs, the Sanskrit mantra lam, and the elephant (symbol of strength). The presiding deities are Brahma (the creator god) and the Goddess Dâkinî. It is generally depicted as a deep red four-petaled lotus, and it is the seat of the dormant kundalinî-shakti and the issue-place of the sushumnâ.
Svâdhishthâna (“own base,” from sva or “own” and adhishthâna or “base”) — Located at the genitals, this cakra is associated with the water element, the sense of taste, the hands, the mantra vam, and an aquatic monster resembling a crocodile (symbol of fertility). The presiding deities are Vishnu and the Goddess Râkinî. This center is depicted as a crimson six-petaled lotus.
Manipura (“jewel city,” from mani or “jewel” and pura or “city/fortress”) — Situated at the navel and also called nâbhi-cakra (“navel wheel”), this psychoenergetic center is associated with the fire element, the visual sense, the anus, the mantra ram, and the ram (symbol of fiery energy). The presiding deities are Rudra and the Goddess Lâkinî. This center is portrayed as a bright yellow lotus of ten petals.
Anâhata (“unstruck”) — This center is located at the heart and hence is also widely known as the hrid-padma (“heart lotus”), a blue lotus of twelve petals. The designation anâhata-cakra derives from the esoteric fact that it is at the heart that the transcendental “sound” (nâda) —Pythagoras’s “music of the spheres”—which is “unstruck,” that is, not produced by mechanical means, can be heard. The heart lotus is associated with the air element, the sense of touch, the penis, the mantra yam, and a black antelope (symbol of swiftness). The presiding deities are Îsha and the Goddess Kakirn.
The Yoga Tradition Page 67