The recitation (japa) of mantras can be done aloud (vâcika), whispered (upâmshu), or mentally (mânasa), which is deemed the best, because it is the most potent. They should be carefully enunciated and never sloppily performed. A fourth way of benefiting from a mantra is by writing it out, which is known as “written recitation” (likhita-japa).
Whichever form of japa is chosen, only conscientious and intensely conscious practice can awaken a mantra’s potency and lead to success. Each mantra is associated with a specific state of consciousness (caitanya), and recitation is thought to be successful when that consciousness is actualized. Without its actualization, a mantra is mere sound that has no transformative power. From another point of view, however, a mantra is the manifestation of the Absolute as Sound (shabda-brahman). The eternal unmanifest sound is the root principle of all manifest sounds—a concept similar to the Greek idea of the logos, as found in the opening passage of the gospel of St. John. Shabda is the kinetic aspect of the Absolute. In its purely transcendental state, the Absolute is thought of as static and uncreative, and it is through its aspect of sound, or vibration, that it generates the finite realms of existence, such as our space-time universe.
Like the world of forms, sound proceeds from the Absolute in a series of distinct stages. Tantrism proposes a four-phase model of speech (vâc, Latin vox):
“Supreme speech” (para-vâc) — sound as pure potentiality, which is coessential with the Creator’s pure cosmic ideation (shrishti- pratyaya), or divine will, arising from the union of Shiva and Shakti. This is the level of the subtle inner sound (nâda).
“Visible speech” (pashyanti-vâc) — sound as mental image prior to thought. This is the level of the seed-point (bindu), arising out of the subtle sound.
“Intermediate speech” (madhyamâ-vâc) — sound as thought, corresponding to the matrices (mâtrikâ) out of which the distinct audible sounds are created.
“Manifest speech” (vaikharî-vâc) — audible sound (dhvani), also called “coarse sound” (sthûla-shabda), the final step in the process of increasing “densification.”
For generations in the East, mantras have been employed not only in sacred contexts, but have widely served as magical spells for profane ends, including healing and occasional black magic. However, their nuclear significance is as a means of internalizing and intensifying awareness to the point of transcendence of all contents of consciousness. It is impossible to do justice to this far-ranging and recondite subject here, and I refer the reader to the works of Sir John Woodroffe for an abundance of technical details, notably his book The Garland of Letters.29
In addition to mantras, there are two other important elements of Tantric practice, namely hand gestures (mudrâ) and geometric representations of the levels and energies of the psychocosmos, which are known as “devices” (yantra).
Symbolic Gestures (Mudrâ)
The word mudrâ is derived from the root mud, “to be glad, delight in,” because mudrâs bring delight (mudâ) to the deities and cause the dissolution (drava) of the mind. But the term mudrâ also denotes “seal,” and it is employed in Tantric contexts in this sense, because the hand gestures (or, in Hatha- Yoga, the bodily postures), “seal” the body, thus bringing joy. They are means of controlling the energy in the body. They are also symbolic representations of inner states. People who are even a little bit sensitive to the body’s energies can easily verify that by folding one’s hands a change of mood is effected: We begin to feel more mentally collected. With a little experience, the different inner states associated with the mudrâs become clearly discernible.
There are said to be 108 hand gestures—108 being a favorite sacred number among Hindus. In reality, there are many more, though according to the Nirvâna-Tantra (11) fifty-five are most commonly used. The origin of the hand gestures used in the Tantric rituals is obscure. They probably go back to Vedic times, when the sacrificial ceremonies involved the meticulous handling of implements such as the ladle during the pouring of the soma libations. The Japanese tea ceremony is a good example of the intensely conscious conduct called for in such rituals. Another, later source of inspiration was Indian dance, which knows a great repertoire of mudrâs, though the possibility that the Tantric mudrâs cross-fertilized Indian dance cannot be ruled out. The Natya-Shâstra (“Textbook of Dance”), created around 200 C.E. but attributed to the ancient sage Bhârata, mentions thirty-seven positions of the hands but also thirty-six specific ways of gazing, closing the eyes, or raising the eyebrows.
The most commonly used Tantric hand gesture, which is also widely employed as a meditation gesture in Yoga, is the jnâna-mudrâ (“wisdom seal”) or the cin- mudrâ (“consciousness seal”) depicted above.
In the various Tantric rituals, many other mudrâs are used, often specific to the deity invoked. Thus, according to the Mantra-Yoga-Samhitâ (53), nineteen seals are necessary in the worship of Vishnu, ten for Shiva and the Goddess Tripurâ Sundarî, nine for Durgâ, seven for Ganesha, five for Târâ, four for Sârasvatî, two for Râma and Parashu-Râma, and only one for Lakshmî. In the Shrî-Vidyâ tradition, the Goddess Tripurâ Sundarî is invoked by means of ten hand gestures, which are symbolically related to the nine sets (called cakra) of subsidiary triangles composing the famous shrî-yantra (or shrî-cakra), with the tenth mudrâ representing the yantra and Goddess as a whole.
Tantrism also knows of therapeutic mudrâs, which operate on the principle that the body mirrors macrocosmic realities and that disease is caused by an imbalance of the five material elements (earth, water, air, fire, and ether/space).30 The above-mentioned jnâna-mudrâ is thought to be excellent for combating insomnia, nervous tension, and weak memory. Prâna-mudrâ is recommended in the case of a heart attack. It is performed by pressing the index finger down on the mound of the thumb, with the other fingers pushing the index finger. Shûnya-mudrâ (“seal of emptiness”), which is said to be good for curing deafness, is executed by placing the middle finger against the root of the thumb. Sûrya-mudrâ (“solar seal”), which is recommended when feeling a sense of heaviness, is done by placing the ring finger against the root of the thumb. In all cases, the seal is to be practiced with both hands simultaneously.
Common ritual hand gestures
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Anjali-mudrâ (“seal of honoring“): Bring the palms of your hands together in front of the heart, with the extended fingers pointing upward. Particularly when done at the level of the forehead, this prayerful gesture is used to welcome the deity.
vâhani-mudrâ (“seal of invitation”): Bring your hands together, palms up and forming an offering bowl, with thumbs curled and the other fingers fully extended. This gesture is used, for instance, when offering a flower to the deity.
Sthâpana-karmanî-mudrâ (“seal of fixing action”): Bring your hands together, palms down, with thumbs tucked underneath. This is essentially the same gesture as the one above, but in reverse.
Samnidhâpani-mudrâ (“seal of bringing close”): Bring your closed fists together, with thumbs placed on top.
Samnirodhanî-mudrâ (“seal of full control”): Same as the preceding gesture but with thumbs tucked into the fists.
Dhenu-mudrâ (“cow seal”), also called amritî-karana-mudrâ (“seal creating the nectar of immortality”): Place the tip of the right index finger on the tip of the left middle finger, the tip of the right middle finger on the tip of the left index finger, the tip of the right ring finger on the tip of the left little finger, and the tip of the right little finger on the tip of the left ring finger.
Matsya-mudrâ (“fish seal”): Place the palm of the left hand on top of the right hand with the fingers fully extended and the thumbs pointing outward at right angles.
Kûrma-mudrâ (“tortoise seal”): Place the palms together in such a way that the right thumb rests on the left wrist, the right index finger touches the tip of the left thumb, and the tips of the right little finger and left index finger touch.
Padma-mudrâ (“lotus seal
”): Bring the wrists together, with the fingers forming the petals of a lotus blossom. The fingertips do not touch.
Yoni-mudrâ (“seal of the womb/vulva”): Bring your hands together, palms up. Interlace the little fingers, and cross the ring fingers behind the fully extended middle fingers, which touch at the tips. The ring fingers are held down by the index fingers. This is the classic symbol of the Goddess.
Shankha-mudrâ (“conch seal”): Hold the thumb of your left hand with four fingers other than the thumb of your right and bring the right thumb to the extended fingers of the left hand.
Shiva-linga-mudrâ (“seal of Shiva’s mark”): Place the left hand palm up near the chest; make the right hand into a fist and place it on the left palm. The right thumb is extended upward. (This illustration is shown from the viewpoint of an observer.)
Cakra-mudrâ (“wheel seal”): Place the left hand with extended fingers in front of the chest, with the palm facing the chest and the thumb extended. Then place the extended right hand, facing downward, on top of the left palm, again with the right thumb extended and at the left wrist.
Geometric Meditation Devîces (Yantra)
A yantra is a thumbnail sketch of the levels and energies of the universe—personalized in the shape of a given deity (devatâ)—and thus the human body (as a microcosmic replica of the macrocosm). A yantra may be drawn on paper, wood, cloth, or any other material, or into sand if nothing else is available. Three-dimensional models made of clay or metal are also known. A yantra has a similar function to the mandala (“circle”) used in Tibetan Tantrism. The difference between them is that mandalas tend to be more pictorial and are based on a circular arrangement of their constituent elements.
A yantra typically consists of a square surround, circles, lotus petals, triangles, and at the center the “seed- point” (bindu). Each component has a more or less elaborate symbolism attached to it. Thus, the upward-pointing triangle denotes the masculine or Shiva pole of reality, while the downward-pointing triangle represents the feminine or Shakti pole. The point in the middle is the creative matrix of the universe, the gateway to the transcendental Reality itself.
In the higher stages of Tantric practice, the yantra must be completely internalized, that is, yogins must construct its complex geometrical pattern mentally through visualization. The yantra is erected either from the innermost point outward—in accordance with the process of macrocosmic evolution—or from the outermost circumference toward the center—in alignment with the microcosmic process of meditative involution. After having elaborately constructed the yantra internally, yogins proceed to dissolve it again. Since they are, in consciousness, identical with the structure of the yantra, its dissolution necessarily implies their own extinction as an experiencing subject. In other words, yogins, if successful at this advanced practice, transcend their conditioned mind and are catapulted into pure Being-Consciousness-Bliss, where the distinction between subject and object does not exist.
Tantrism employs a large number of yantras. In Chapter 20 of the Mantra-Mahodadhi (“Great Ocean of Mantras”) twenty-nine yantras are described. The most celebrated of all is undoubtedly the shrî-yantra depicted below. The name shri refers to Lakshmî, the goddess of fortune. This yantra is composed of nine juxtaposed triangles that are arranged in such a way that together they produce a total of forty-three smaller triangles. Four of the nine primary triangles point upward, representing the male cosmic energy (Shiva); five of them point downward, symbolizing the female power (Shakti). These triangles are surrounded by an eight-petaled lotus symbolizing the deity Vishnu, who stands for the all- pervading ascending tendency in the universe. The next lotus, with sixteen petals, represents the attainment of the desired object, particularly yogins’ power over their mind and senses. Enclosing this lotus are four concentric lines that are symbolically connected with the two lotuses. The triple line surround is called “earth-city” (bhû-pura), which designates the consecrated place that may be the entire universe or, by way of analogy, the human body.
Some ritual yantras are also employed for therapeutic purposes. In addition, yantras specific to an illness or a person can be created as amulets to effect magical cures. In every case, the effectiveness of a yantra depends on the adept’s quality of concentration and visualization, as well as on his or her mastery of the subtle energies.
The Ritual of the “Five M’s”
The term mudrâ, mentioned above, is applied to another practice of Tantrism. It refers to one of the elements of the central Tantric ritual of the “Five M’s” (panca-makâra). These five practices, which in Sanskrit all have names beginning with the letter m, are the following: (1) madya or wine; (2) matsya or fish; (3) mâmsa or meat; (4) mudrâ or parched grain; (5) maithunâ or sexual intercourse. These five are understood metaphorically (in right-hand schools) and performed literally (in left- hand schools).
According to the Kula-Arnava-Tantra (chapter 4), wine is used in the left-hand ritual as a cathartic agent, cleansing the mind from the worries and concerns of everyday life. The object, however, is not drunkenness, which induces stupor rather than clarity. Similarly, the consumption of fish and meat, which are as strictly forbidden to the ordinary Hindu as is wine, has the sole purpose of achieving a higher state of awareness. Parched grain, like wine, fish, and meat, is supposed to act as an aphrodisiac—again an awareness-altering substance. Why parched grain should have this property is nowhere explained in the classical or exegetical literature, though it is possible that ergot might be involved, which was apparently also used in the ancient Greek cult of Demeter.
Not mentioned among the “Five M’s” but also prominent in Tantric rites are narcotic drugs (aushadhi). Commenting on the widespread use of awareness- or mood-altering drugs, Swami Satyananda Saraswati of Bihar made the observation that, to this day, India’s holy men take drugs such as ganja (marijuana) and datura (jimsonweed), while bhang (a preparation made from marijuana) is universally used during the Shivaratri festival, in which the marriage of Shiva and Parvati is celebrated. However, the Swami did not fail to remind us that drugs “allow us to taste the beyond but do not make us masters of the transcendental.”31
Practitioners of the left-hand path (vâma-mârga)— vâma means both “left” and “woman”—know they are breaking profound social taboos, and their only justification for their conduct is that their goal is not sensual gratification but self-transcendence in the context of bodily existence. The philosophy of Tantrism is summarized in the following words from the Mahâcîna-câra-Krama- Tantra:
The yogin cannot be a sensualist (bhogin), and the sensualist is not one endowed with Yoga. Hence the kaula whose essence is Yoga and sensuality is held to be superior to everyone.32
Ritual Sex (Maithunâ)
The Tantras make it clear that to be successful in this dangerous approach, the (male) practitioner must not suffer from doubt, fear, or lust. He must be a “hero” (vira). This is especially important in the execution of the fifth practice, which is sexual congress—a practice that the Tantras generally direct to male practitioners. The female partner in this rite must be duly consecrated through ritual bathing and other ceremonies of purification, and ideally she should be a spiritual practitioner herself. The yogin must see in her not a person of the opposite sex, but the Goddess, Shakti, just as he must experience himself as Shiva. The ideal female partner should be lovely and quite uninhibited. Any woman qualifies, except one’s mother. However, in an appendix to the Yoga-Karnikâ (“Ear-Ornament of Yoga”), a work of the eighteenth century, we find Shiva himself give the following instruction:
One should place one’s penis into the vagina of one’s mother and one’s sandals on one’s father’s head, while fondling [or licking] one’s sister’s breasts and kissing her fair seat. He who does this, O great Goddess, reaches the Abode of Extinction. He who worships day and night an actress, a female skull-bearer, a prostitute, a low-caste woman, a washerman’s wife—he verily [becomes identical with] the blessed Sad
â-Shiva.
More likely than not, even extreme left-hand tântrikas would interpret the opening sentence metaphorically. Tantrism has a fully developed “twilight language” (sandhâ-bhâshâ), or secret symbolic language, which can be very misleading to the uninitiated. Initiates must learn from a knowledgeable teacher how to navigate the symbolism of their respective tradition lest they become shipwrecked on the rock of literalism.
In left-hand Tantrism, the term mudrâ also refers to the female partner in the metasexual ritual. She also is called vâma, simply meaning “lovely woman.” The maithunâ rite, which incidentally has Vedic antecedents, often bears the technical designation yoni-pûjâ or “worship of the vulva.” This is meant to suggest that the rite is a sacred procedure. In fact, it can be an exceedingly complex affair, consisting of hours of painstaking ceremonial preparation and then an equally formal period of actual intercourse. Ordinarily, this ritual is performed among a circle (cakra) of initiates with the teacher present. The partners embrace as male and female deities, not ordinary mortals. There is of course delight, since the whole point of the ritual is to generate bliss (ânanda) through bodily means, but there should be no self- indulgence, no egoic exploitation of the experience.
The Yoga Tradition Page 69