The Goraksha-Upanishad, written in a mixture of Hindusthani and Rajasthani, may date from the fifteenth century. Among other things, it lists the requisite qualities of a competent teacher and a fit disciple.
The Goraksha-Vâcana-Samgraha (“Collection of Goraksha’s Sayings”), consisting of 157 verses, claims to give out authentic teachings by Goraksha, but was probably authored in the seventeenth century. The fact is that we do not have a single work that we can definitely regard as Goraksha’s creation. Often the followers of a great master credit their own writings to him, as was the case, for instance, with the twentieth-century teacher Swami Shivânanda of Rishikesh, who “authored” several hundred works.
The vernacular literature on Hatha-Yoga, including the Hindi poems ascribed to Goraksha, is ill researched and deserves more attention.
nanda-Samuccaya
A little known but significant Hatha-Yoga work that may date back to the thirteenth century is the nanda-Samuccaya (“Mass of Bliss”), which has 277 stanzas distributed over eight chapters. It was brought to the attention of scholars in the late 1950s when a manuscript that had been in the possession of a renowned scholarly family in India was acquired by the Scindia Oriental Institute of Ujjain. The personal libraries of pundits and practitioners must contain many more precious Yoga manuscripts that are undoubtedly in need of urgent preservation, because the Indian climate plays havoc with the fragile paper on which these texts are inscribed. The style of this Sanskrit text has been described as “very lucid and marked with high literary merits,”40 which is rare for this literary genre. Unfortunately, we do not know the author, but he appears to have been a Jaina, since he opens the text with the om sign written in typical Jaina calligraphy.
The nanda-Samuccaya introduces many esoteric concepts of Hatha-Yoga, including the (nine) cakras, pithas, sthânas, and nddis (which are said to contain 7,200 divisions each), as well as the ten types of life energy (vâyu). Some of the teachings appear unique, such as the candra-cara and surya-cara, or lunar process and solar process. Thus, the yogin is instructed in activating the hidden moon’s (candra) sixteen parts (kala) by means of forty-two yogic practices (karman), whereupon the lunar nectar will invigorate the body. Similarly, by activating the twelve parts of the hidden sun by means of forty-two practices, it will shine brightly within the body.
The yogin is further advised to balance the five material elements (bhuta) throughout the year’s seasons by employing the requisite yogic practices. The state of harmony thus achieved is called bhuta-samata (“elemental balance”), which leads to mastery of the elements (bhuta-siddhi), longevity, and other paranormal powers. The goal, however, is to attain union with the supreme Reality through the progressive stages of anin- driyata (the state of not being affected by the senses), tattva-avabodha (knowledge of Reality), and jîvan- mukti (liberation in life).
Carpâta-Shataka
Another old work is the Carpâta-Shataka, which, as the title indicates, consists of a century (shataka) of verses by the adept Carpâta (or Carpati). This text emphasizes discrimination (viveka) and renunciation, as well as the moral foundation of Yoga. The author’s conceptual world appears to be closer to Jainism than to Hatha-Yoga, which makes this text of great historical interest.
Yoga-Yâjnavalkya and Brihad-Yogi- Yâjnavalkya
The Yoga-Yâjnavalkya (“Yâjnavalkya’s Yoga”), which is also known as the Yoga-Yâjnavalkya-Gîtâ and Yoga-Yâjnavalkya-Gîtâ-Upanishad, is a work of 485 stanzas distributed over twelve chapters. It is attributed to Yâjnavalkya, who is different from the famous Upanishadic sage by that name. It is presented as a dialogue between the sage and his wife Gargi.
Prahlad C. Divanji, the editor of this text, lauded it as “the earliest available book on Hathayoga for the common man.”41 He mentioned the period between 200 and 400 C.E. as a possible date for the Yoga-Yâjnavalkya, perhaps primarily on the basis that several quotations in Shankara’s commentary on the Shvetâshvatara- Upanishad seem to be traceable to this text. The authenticity of this particular commentary, however, is seriously in doubt.42 Also, the Yoga-Yâjnavalkya repeatedly makes reference to the Tantras, and the earliest Hindu Tantras belong to a period after c. 400 C.E.
Additionally, Divanji wrongly claimed that this text speaks only of drawing the serpent power up to the lotus of the heart, whereas there are several stanzas that clearly describe the kundalinî process in terms that are quite familiar from the Hatha-Yoga literature. In fact, the terminology and style of the Yoga-Yâjnavalkya have much in common with the Yoga-Upanishads, and it seems unlikely that it is the same as the Yoga-Shâstra attributed to a certain Yâjnavalkya and mentioned or quoted in various scriptures, notably the Dharma- Shâstra of Yâjnavalkya. It is possible, however, that the Yoga-Yâjnavalkya contains stanzas from the missing Yoga-Shâstra.
The work Brihad-Yogi-Yâjnavalkya-Smriti (“Great Treatise on Yogin Yâjnavalkya’s [Yoga]”) appears on first glance to be an expanded version of the Yoga- Yâjnavalkya but is an entirely independent and original text, which is likely far older. In his multivolume History of Dharmsastra, P. V. Kane assigned it to the period between 200 and 700 C.E. The latter date is not impossible.43
The Brihad-Yogi-Yâjnavalkya-Smriti is a fairly substantial treatise of 886 stanzas that describes many ritual practices to be followed by the yogin. Much space is given to the philosophy and practice of Mantra-Yoga, consisting in the recitation of the sacred syllable om combined with breath control. However, like the Yoga- Yâjnavalkya, this text also subscribes to the model of the eight-limbed Yoga that we know from the Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali.
There is a strong element of Solar Yoga, especially in the ninth chapter. Ida and sushumnâ (!) are said in stanza 9.96 to exist in the form of rashmi (sun) and to have the qualities of agni (fire) and soma (moon) respectively. From stanza 9.98 we also leam that between these two is ama (new moon), where the moon is stimulated by the sun. The sages are said (9.100) to aspire to the Absolute by following that ama, which exists in the sun, the heart, and the supreme Absolute. In 9.156, we are told that the Self is singular but appears in five forms: the sun, heart, fire, space, and in the Supreme (para).
This text mentions the 72,000 nddis that issue from the heart, but does not name the fourteen important ones, as does the Yoga-Yâjnavalkya. Nor does it refer to the kundalinî, which also could be an indication of its early date.
Both the Brihad-Yogi-Ydjnavalkya-Smriti and the Yoga-Yâjnavalkya were obviously composed in the cultural environment of Smârta Brahmanism.
Yoga-Vishaya
The Yoga-Vishaya (“Object of Yoga”), misleadingly ascribed to Matsyendra, is a short work of thirty-three verses. Its date is uncertain, and it may be fairly recent. It covers such basic topics as the nine centers (cakras), the three “knots” (granthi), and the nine “gates” (dvdra), or bodily openings. The objective of breath control is said to enable the life force (prâna) to pierce through the knots so that the kundalinî can fully ascend along the spinal axis.
Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ
The Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ (“Light on Hatha- Yoga”) was composed by Svatmarama (or Atmarama) Yogendra in the middle of the fourteenth century. This is undoubtedly the classic manual on Hatha-Yoga. It comprises 389 stanzas organized into four chapters. Svatmarama, a follower of the Shaiva Yoga tradition of Andhra, expounds Hatha-Yoga as a means to Râja- Yoga.
One is not successful in Râja-Yoga without Hatha-[Yoga], nor in Hatha-[Yoga] without Râja-Yoga. Hence one should practice both for [one’s spiritual] maturation. (2.76)
The first chapter is dedicated primarily to a description of the principal postures (âsana), while the second chapter speaks of the cleansing practices as well as the life force (prâna) and its regulation through breath control (prânayâma). In the third chapter, Svatmarama introduces us to the subtle physiology and techniques, such as the seals (mudrâ) and locks (bandha), by which the life force can be properly contained in the body and the kundalinî awakened. The concluding chapter d
eals with the higher stages of yogic practice, including the ecstatic condition (samâdhi), which is understood in nondualist Vedântic terms. The Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ has an excellent commentary entitled Jyotsna (“Light”) by Brahman- anda of the mid-eighteenth century.
Hatha-Ratna-Avalî
The Hatha-Ratna-Avali (“String of Pearls on Hatha”) of Shrinivasa Bhatta, which may have been composed in the mid-seventeenth century and appears to have at least one commentary, is a work of 397 verses. Shrini- vasa, who also wrote works on Vedânta, Nyâya, and Tantra, offers a masterly treatment of Hatha-Yoga which expands on the information contained in the Hatha-Yoga- Pradipikâ.
Gheranda-Samhitâ
The Gheranda-Samhitd (“Gheranda’s Collection”), probably composed toward the end of the seventeenth century, is one of the best known works on Hatha- Yoga. The author of the Gheranda-Samhitâ followed the Vaishnava Yoga tradition of Bengal. This work has seven chapters with 317 verses in all, though some manuscripts have additional stanzas. It describes no fewer than 102 yogic practices, including twenty-one hygienic techniques, thirty-two postures, and twenty-five seals (mudrâ). It speaks of seven “limbs” of Yoga and curiously treats breath control (prânâyâma) after sense-withdrawal (pratyâhâra).44 In Patanjali’s Yoga, breath control is the fourth and sense- withdrawal the fifth limb.
Shiva-Samhitâ
After the Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ and the Gher- anda-Samhitâ, the Shiva-Samhitâ (“Shiva’s Collection”) is the most important manual of Hatha-Yoga. It comprises 645 stanzas distributed over five chapters. This scripture is particularly valuable because it includes a fair amount of philosophical matter. Its date is unknown, but it appears to be a work of the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century.
The entire first chapter is devoted to expounding Vedântic nondualism:
Illusion (mâyâ) is the mother of the world; not by any other principle is it established. When [this mâyâ is destroyed, then the world surely ceases to exist as well.
He for whom this entire [universe] is the play of mâyâ—which is to be overcome—he has no delight in things and no pleasure in the body. (1.64-65) When a person is free from all superimposition (upâdhi), then he can claim to be of the form of untainted, indivisible wisdom (jnânà). (1.67)
The second chapter contains descriptions of some of the esoteric structures of the human body. The third chapter opens with a discussion of the teacher and qualified students, and then goes on to discuss breath control and the three levels of yogic accomplishment, namely (1) the “pot state” (ghata-avasthâ, written ghatâvasthâ), in which the life force in the body (called the “pot”) collaborates with the universal Self; (2) the “accumûlâtion state” (paricaya-avasthâ, written paricayâvasthâ), in which the life force is immobilized along the bodily axis (sushumnâ); (3) and the “maturation state” (nishpatti- avasthâ, written nishpattyavasthâ), in which the yogin has destroyed the seeds of his karma and “drinks from the water of immortality” (3.66).
In the fourth chapter, the anonymous author describes the various locks (bandha) and seals (mudrâ) for awakening the kundalinî. The fifth chapter is a treatment of the obstacles on the yogic path, followed by a discussion of the secret bodily centers (cakra), especially the crown center, and of the higher stages of Yoga. The text concludes by affirming that even householders can attain liberation, as long as they observe the duties of a yogin with diligence and give up all attachments.
Yoga-Shâstra
The Yoga-Shâstra of Dattâtreya, consisting of 334 lines, is undoubtedly a late work, but since it is quoted in the Yoga-Karnikâ it must be earlier than it. The text is presented as a dialogue between the sage (muni) Dattâtreya residing in the Naimisha forest and the seeker Samkriti. It speaks (line 28) of Mantra- Yoga as a lower (adhama) form of Yoga and praises (line 29) Laya-Yoga as a means of achieving complete absorption (laya) of the mind.
The text also includes (lines 29-30) a teaching about the “conventions” (sanketa) for focusing the mind. Adinatha (i.e., Shiva) is said to have taught eight crores (i.e., eighty million) of such sanketas, or techniques. Thus one can contemplate emptiness (shûnya), which can be practiced in any situation, or meditatively gaze at the tip of the nose, or focus on the back of the head, the spot between the eyebrows, the forehead, the big toe of either foot, and so forth.
Karma-Yoga is explained (lines 52-56) as having the same eight limbs as Patanjali’s or Yâjnavalkya’s Yoga. The text next describes (lines 57-61) the eight principal practices (kriyâ) of Hatha-Yoga as cultivated by Kapila and his disciples: mahâ-mudrâ, mahâ-bandha, khecârî-mudrâ, jalandhâra-bandha, uddiyana-bandha, mûlâ-bandha, viparîta-karani, and vajrolî, with the last-mentioned consisting of the techniques of vajrolî, amaroli, and sahajoli. As the Yoga- Shâstra explains (lines 306-316), the yogin must control the semen through vajrolî. This practice requires milk (kshira)—probably standing for semen—and a substance called angirasa (the name of a Vedic clan associated with magic), which refers to the female genital secretions. Both are meant to be sucked up through the penis in case the yogin succumbs to ejaculation. Amaroli and sahajoli are left unexplained, but descriptions of these techniques can be found in the Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ (3.92-98). The former is the yogic equivalent of urine therapy, while the latter consists in besmearing, after intercourse, certain unmentioned parts of the body with a mixture of water and the ashes obtained by burning cow dung. According to the Jyotsna commentaiy on this passage, the body parts are the head, forehead, eyes, heart, shoulders, and arms.
Yoga-Karnikâ
Yoga-Karnikâ (“Ear-Ornament of Yoga”) of Aghorânanda was composed some time in the eighteenth century. It has fifteen chapters with well over 1,200 verses. The arrangement of the content is far from systematic, nor is this work particularly original. Its value lies, rather, in the many quotations that it provides from other Hatha-Yoga scriptures, which include some not readily available texts.
Hatha-Sanketa-Candrikâ
The Hatha-Sanketa-Candrikâ (“Moonlight on the Conventions of Hatha [-Yoga]”) is a little known but very important work authored by Sundaradeva (1675-1775).45 The great value of this substantial scripture lies partly in its comprehensive coverage of Hatha-Yoga and partly in the numerous quotations and references it contains.
ADDENDUM ON HATHA-YOGA LITERATURE
Since the publication of the previous (second) edition, a couple of new translations of little-known but important Sanskrit texts on Hatha-Yoga, as well as the ten-chapter version of the Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ, have been made available by the Lonavla Yoga Institute under the directorship of the late Dr. M. L. Gharote (1931-2005).
Hatha(-Yoga)-Pradîpikâ (in Ten Chapters)
Until M. L. Gharote and P. Devnath’s 2001 edition of the Hatha(-Yoga)-Pradîpikâ, all available editions of this vitally important text consisted of a maximum of 5 chapters but most often only 4 chapters. The 2001 edition has what appears to be the complete text of 10 chapters comprising 626 verses.
Hatha-Tattva-Kaumudî
The Hatha-Tattva-Kaumudî (“Light on the Principles of Hatha-[Yoga]”), of which only a few manuscripts exist, was composed by Sundaradeva, who also authored the already discussed Hatha-Sanketa- Candrikâ, as well as a dozen or so other works. The Kaumudî, which comprises 56 chapters, purports to be a condensation of an apparently still more voluminous but not yet discovered work entitled Yoga-Hridaya. It shows the author’s intimate knowledge of Hatha-Yoga theory and practice.
Sundaradeva cites by name no fewer than seventy-two texts and six authors. Some of these texts appear to be no longer extant, and others are known only because their titles are mentioned in the manuscript catalogues of various institutions. Sundaradeva appears to have been an erudite scholar and a practitioner of Yoga. He also authored the Hatha-Tattva-Kaumudî and the Pranava-Kundalî, as well as several works on drama, poetry, and dietetics.
Concluding Remarks
The traditional literature of Hatha-Yoga has been little resear
ched. We know of many more titles than those introduced here, but they are either mere names or are manuscripts seen by few and buried in dusty libraries where they are slowly deteriorating in the humid climate of India. I believe, however, that the salvaged literature contains the substance of the Hatha- Yogic tradition.
Yukta-Bhavadeva
The author of this text was Bhavadeva Mishra, who lived in the 17th century probably in the region of Mithila in what is now North Bihar. Various Sanskrit compositions are attributed to him, including commentaries on the Yoga-Sûtra, the Brahma-Sûtra, and the Shândilya-Sûtra.
Apparently dated 1623 C.E., the Yukta-Bhavadeva is an erudite work of 11 chapters, which comprises 181 printed pages in the critical edition of M. L. Gharote and V. K. Jha. Bhavadeva quotes many other Yoga texts, either in support of his ideas or in order to make critical corrections. He has adopted Patanjali’s eight limbs but focuses his attention on Hatha-Yoga techniques and processes. In particular, he has dedicated two chapters on anatomy and on herbal treatments (kalpa). Historically relevant is the fact that Bhavadeva Mishra quotes the Shiva- Samhitâ, which would place this text earlier than usually thought.
ADDENDUM - Green Yoga: The Ripening of Contemporary Yoga
Contemporary Yoga, which has primarily evolved in Western countries, is rich in innovations. Most of these modern inventions concern yogic technology, especially the postures. There is, however, one development that deserves to be singled out here, which relates to Yoga’s relevance for today’s global environmental crisis. I am referring to what is known as “Eco-Yoga” or “Green Yoga.”
I believe I was the first to use the concept of “Eco- Yoga” in an essay, which was subsequently published in my book Sacred Paths (1991), later to be incorporated into The Deeper Dimension of Yoga (2003). The designation “Eco-Yoga” has also been used by, among others, the eminent Polish-American philosopher Henryk Skolimowski. In 1994, he published a book entitled Ecoyoga: Practice & Meditations For Walking in Beauty on the Earth, which spelled out the significance of a participatory yogic viewpoint for the growing environmental movement. Because “Green Yoga” is a far more evocative label, I have lately adopted it rather than “Eco-Yoga.”
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