Emergence of the Kâlacakrayâna, an offshoot of Mahâyâna Buddhism.
Beginning of the Kâlâmukha order of Shaivism.
1000-1200 Gradual disappearance of Buddhism from India.
1000-1400 Composition of Upanishads with a strong Shâkta orientation.
1012-1097 The Tibetan teacher Marpa, who was famous for his translations of Sanskrit texts into Tibetan.
1017-1137 Râmânuja, one of the great preceptors of medieval Vaishnaivism and representative of Vishishta-Advaita Vedânta.
1040-1123 Milarepa, Tibet’s most beloved yogin, who was a disciple of Marpa.
1050 Composition of Cekkilar’s Peria-Purânam in Tamil and collection of Tamil Shaiva hymns into the Tiru-Mûrai, South India’s equivalent of the Sanskrit Vedas.
Composition of important Tantric works like the Kaula- Jnâna-Nirnaya ascribed to Matsyendra Nâtha, and the Shâradâ-Tilaka-Tantra.
1079-1153 Gampopa, Milarepa’s main disciple, who was one of Tibet’s greatest scholar-adepts, and who authored many works, including the Jewel Ornament of Liberation.
1089-1172 Hemacandra, famous Jaina philosopher and author of the Yoga-Shâstra.
1106-1167 Basava (or Basavanna), reputed founder of the Lingâyata tradition of South India, which is also known as Vîra-Shaivism.
1150-1250 Composition of the Kubjikâ-Mata-Tantra and also the Yoga-Upanishads, with the exception of the Bindu-Upani- shads mentioned above (see 900-1200 C.E.).
1190 -1276 Madhva, founder of the dualist branch of Vedânta; his dates are sometimes given as 1199-1278 C.E.
1200 Jayâratha, a Kashmiri Tantric scholar, who wrote many excellent commentaries.
Composition of the Kula-Arnava-Tantra (the most important text of the Kaula school) and the Devî-Bhâgavata.
1200-1300 Composition of Hatha-Yoga scriptures such as the Yoga- Yâjnavalkya, nanda-Samuccaya, and Carpâta-Shataka. Possible date of the Muktikâ-Upanishad, which lists 108 Upanishads.
1250 Meykandar, author of the Shiva-Jnâna-Bodha, an important Shaiva text.
1275-1296 Jnânadeva (or Jnâneshvara), Maharashtra’s most renowned Yoga adept and author of the Jnâneshvari, a poetic Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad-Gîtâ.
1288 Marco Polo’s first visit to India. He returned five years later.
1290-1364 Buston, Tibetan historian and author of the famous Deb-ther Non-po (“Blue Annals”).
1300 Possible beginning of the Aghorî order of Shaivism.
1350 Composition of the Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ, one of the standard manuals of Hatha-Yoga.
Possible date of the composition of the Sâmkhya-Sûtra ascribed to Kapila.
1350 Vidyâranya, author of the Jîvan-Mukti-Viveka, a Vedânta work on the ideal of liberation during embodiment; he makes use of the Yoga-Sûtra and other Yoga texts. He also compiled the Yoga-Vâsishtha-Sâra-Samgraha.
1357-1419 Tsongkhapa, who reformed Tibetan Buddhism, which had become degenerated through sexual and magical practices. He authored numerous works and founded the Gelugpa school, which is now the largest branch of Tibetan Buddhism.
1391-1478 Gendun Drub, the first Dalai Lama.
1440-1518 Kabtr, a popular poet-saint of North India, who pioneered the integration of Hinduism with Muslim teachings.
1455-1570 Drukpa Kunleg, a famous crazy-wisdom adept of Tibet.
1469-1539 Nânak, founder of the Sikh tradition.
1479-1531 Vallabha, renowned teacher of Bhakti-Yoga centering on the worship of God Krishna.
1485-1533 Caitanya, one of the foremost medieval Vaishnava teachers of Bengal and a great bhakti-yogin.
1498 Vasco da Gama arrives at the coast of Malabar.
1500 Composition of the Avadhûta-Gîtâ.
Râghava B hat ta, author of various Tantric works, including the Kdlt-Tattva.
Brahmânanda Giri, Tantric adept and author of several texts, including the Shâkta-nanda-Târânginî.
1502 Composition of the gama-Kalpa-Druma of Govinda, son of Jagannâtha.
Krishnânanda, author of the Tantra-Sâra and other Tantric works.
1532-1623 Tiilsî Dâs, a widely influential North Indian poet-saint, who composed the Hindi Râmâyana.
1550 Vijnâna Bhikshu, author of numerous philosophical works, including commentaries on the Yoga-Sûtra, notably the voluminous Yoga-Vârttika.
Composition of the Yoginî-Tantra, a valuable resource of legendary materials relating to the Devî cult.
1556-1605 Emperor Akbar, greatest of India’s Muslim rulers.
1577 Composition of the Shrî-Tattva-Cintâmani by Pûrnânanda Giri, who also wrote the Shâkta-Krama and Shyâmâ-Rahasya.
Composition of the voluminous Shakti-Samgama-Tantra.
1600 Subhagânanda Nâtha, a Kashmiri Tantric scholar-adept, who wrote the most important commentary on the Tantra-Râja- Tantra, entitled Manorama. His pupil was the well-known Prakashânanda Nâtha.
The British and Dutch establish trading companies in India.
1617-1682 Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, the fifth Dalai Lama (known as the “Great Fifth”), the most dynamic and influential of the early Dalai Lamas and a prodigious writer.
1650 Composition of the Gheranda-Samhitâ, a popular manual of Hatha-Yoga.
1718-1775 Râm Prasad Sen, celebrated Bengali poet and Kâlî worshiper.
1750 Composition of the well-known Mahdnirvâna-Tantra and the Shiva-Samhitd, an important work on Hatha-Yoga.
Bhasararaya, the greatest Shrî-Vidyâ authority, who authored over forty works, the most important being the Setu-Bandha (an extensive commentary on the Yogint- Hridaya-Tantra).
1760 Beginning of the British Raj in India.
1772-1833 Rammohun Roy, founder of the influential Brahma Samaj organization, who has been called the “father of modern India.”
1834-1886 Râmakrishna, one of the great mystics of nineteenth- century India.
1861-1941Rabindranath Tagore, poet laureate of Bengal and a representative of modern Indian humanism.
1862-1902Swami Vivekânanda, chief disciple of Sri Râmakrishna and founder of the Râmakrishna Mission (now Râmakrishna-Vivekânanda Mission), a key figure in the dissemination of Hinduism and Yoga in Europe and America.
1869-1948 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, advocate of the principle of nonharming (ahimsâ) in all areas of life, especially politics.
1872-1950 Sri Aurobindo, originator of Integral Yoga.
1875 Founding of the Theosophical Society, which established its headquarters in Adyar, India, in 1882; thanks to the efforts of this organization, many Sanskrit texts were translated into English for the first time.
1876-1933 Tupden Gyatso, the thirteenth Dalai Lama, who sent Tibetans to be educated in Europe to prepare Tibet for the modern worid.
1879-1950 Râmana Maharshi of Tiruvannâmalai in South India, one of modern India’s most renowned sages and a staunch proponent of Advaita Vedânta.
1935- Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, who continues the mission of the previous Dalai Lama of integrating Tibet with the rest of the world.
1947 India achieves political independence.
1959 Chinese invasion of Tibet leading to the rapid dissemination of Vajrayâna Buddhism in the Western hemisphere.
2001 In February, after the 7.9 magnitude earthquake that struck Gujarat on January 26, the Sârasvatî River reappeared locally—an auspicious omen for many Hindus.
2005 First International Green Yoga Conference (U.S.A.)
2007 Publication of Georg and Brenda Feurstein’s book Green Yoga
câra (“conduct”). Way of life, approach to spiritual practice.
Acarya (“preceptor”). A teacher, who may or may not be one’s guru.
Adhyâtma-Yoga (“Yoga of the innermost Self’). A Vedânta-based Yoga.
Advaita Vedânta (“nondual Vedânta”). The metaphysical tradition of nondualism based on the Upanishads. Its two main branches are Kevâla-Advaita (written Kevâladvaita, “Radical Nonduali
sm”), as taught by Shankara, and Vishishta-Advaita (written Vishish- tadvaita, “Qualified Nondualism”), as taught by RamSnuja.
gama (“tradition”). A revealed ritual text belonging to the Pâncarâtra- Vaishnava tradition or to the Shaiva tradition (in which case it is typically called Tantra).
Agastya. The name of several sages, the most famous of whom was a great adept (siddha) in Southern India.
Aghora (“nontemble”). An epithet of God Shiva, paradoxically, in his terrifying aspect.
Aghorî. ATantra-based Shaiva sect whose members are well-known for their extremist practices. See also Kâlâmukha, Kâpâlika.
Ahamkara (“I-maker”). The sense of individuation, or ego.
Ahimsâ (“nonharming”). Abstention from harmful actions, thoughts, and words. An important moral discipline (yamd) in Yoga, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Ajna-cakra (“command wheel”). The psychoenergetic center located in the middle of the head, also known as the “third eye.”
Ajnâna. See avidyâ.
Alvar. A member of a group of Vishnu-worshiping poet-saints of South India.
Anâhata-cakra (“wheel of the unstruck [sound]”). The psychoenergetic center located at the heart, where the universal sound om can be heard in meditation.
nanda (“bliss”), (i) In Vedânta, the mind-transcending blissfulness of the ultimate Reality, or Self, which is not considered to be a quality but the very essence of Reality, (ii) In Patanjali’s Yoga, an experiential state associated with a lower type of ecstasy, viz. samprajnâta-samâdhi.
Anga (“limb”), (i) The body as a whole, or a limb, (ii) A category of yogic practices. See also yoga-anga.
Arjuna. The hero of the Bhagavad-Gîtâ and disciple of Lord Krishna.
Arogya (“health, well-being”). The opposite of disease (vyâdhi)’, a positive state of bodily and mental balance. Cf. vyâdhi.
Asamprajnâta-samâdhi (“supraconscious ecstasy”). The technique leading to, the experience of, unified consciousness in which the subject becomes one with the experienced object, without any thoughts or ideas being present. In Vedânta, this is known as nirvikalpa-samâdhi. Cf. samprajnâta-samâdhi.
Asana (“seat, posture”), (i) The seat on which the yogin or yoginî is seated. (ii) Posture, which is the third limb (anga) of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga.
Asanga. A great Mahâyâna Buddhist master and originator of the Yogâcâra school.
shrama. (i) Hermitage, (ii) Stage of life. Traditional Hinduism distinguishes four such stages: pupilage (brahmâcârya), householder- ship (gdrhasthya), forest-dwelling life (vâna-prasthya), and renunciation (samnyâsa).
Asmita (“I-am-ness”). See ahamkâra.
Asparsha-Yoga (“Yoga of noncontact”). The nondualist Yoga expounded in the Mândûkya-Kârikâ of Gaudapâda, the teacher of Shankara’s teacher.
Atharva-Veda (“Atharvan’s knowledge”). One of the four Vedic hymn collections (samhita) that deals primarily with magical spells but also contains several important documents of early Yoga. See also Rig-Veda, Sâma-Veda, Yajur-Veda.
Atma-darshana (“Self vision”). The same as Self-realization, or liberation.
Atman (“self’), (i) Oneself, (ii) The transcendental Self, which is identical with the Absolute (brahman), according to the nondualist schools of thought. Cf. purusha.
Avadhûta (“he who has cast off’). A radical type of renouncer who abandons all conventions; a crazy adept.
Avatâra (“descent”). An incarnation of the Divine, especially of God Vishnu, such as Krishna or Râma.
Avidyâ (“ignorance”). Spiritual nescience, which is the root of all human suffering and the cause of one’s bondage to egoic states of consciousness. Cf. jnâna, vidyâ.
yur-Veda (“life science”). The native Hindu system of medicine.
Bandha (“bond”), (i) Bondage to the phenomenal world, driven by karma, as opposed to liberation (moksha). (ii) “Lock”—a special technique used in Hatha-Yoga for confining the life force in certain parts of the body.
Bhagavad-Gîtâ (“lord’s song”). The earliest and most popular Yoga scripture containing the teachings of Lord Krishna to Arjuna.
Bhagavat (“lord”). Appellation of the Divine, often Krishna. In the nominative: Bhagavan.
Bhâgavata. (i) Adherent of Vishnu in the form of Krishna, (ii) Name of the tradition of Krishna worshipers.
Bhâgavata-Purâna. A comprehensive tenth-century Sanskrit scripture containing, among other things, the mythical life story of Lord Krishna. It is also called Shrimad-Bhâgavata.
Bhakta (“devoted, devotee”). A follower of the path of devotion (bhakti).
Bhakti (“devotion, love”). The spiritual sentiment of loving participation in the Divine.
Bhakti-Sûtra (“aphorisms on devotion”). There are two works by this title; one is attributed to the sage Nârada, the other to the sage Shândilya.
Bhakti-Yoga (“Yoga of devotion”). One of the principal branches of Hindu Yoga.
Bhairava. (i) One of the epithets or forms of Shiva, (ii) Tantric initiate, (iii) Name of one of the masters of Hatha-Yoga.
Bhairavî. (i) One of the epithets or forms of Devî, (ii) Tantric female initiate.
Bhava (“state, condition”). In Bhakti-Yoga this refers to a state of uplifted emotion, of which the literature distinguishes five kinds that represent different ways of relating to the Divine.
Bhrigu. The most famous of Vedic seers (rishi). He often figures as a teacher of Yoga in medieval texts.
Bhuta (“element”), (i) Hindu cosmology distinguishes five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and ether/space, (ii) Demon.
Bhuta-shuddhi (“purification of the elements”). An important Tantric practice and a precondition for the safe and complete arousal of the serpent power (kundalinî-shakti).
Bija (“seed”), (i) A karmic cause in the form of a subconscious activator (samskâra). (ii) A meditative object or idea, (iii) Short for bîja-mantra.
Bija-mantra (“seed syllable”). A primary mantra, such as om, ram, or yam.
Bindu (“drop”), (i) The dot placed above the Sanskrit letter m in the syllable om and other similar mantras, indicating that the sound m is to be nasalized, (ii) The nasalized sound itself, (iii) A special psychoener- getic center in the head, close to the ajna-cakra. (iv) The central point of a yantra or mandala. (v) In yogic experience, the objectless state of awareness prior to the appearance of images and thoughts but not identical to the transcendental Being-Consciousness. (vi) In Hindu cosmology, the threshold between the unmanifest dimension of Nature and manifestation, (vii) Semen, which, according to Tantrism, should be mingled with the woman’s ejaculate called rajas.
Bodhi (“enlightenment”). The state of enlightenment, or liberation (moksha).
Bodhisattva (“enlightenment being”). In Mahâyâna Buddhism, the spiritual practitioner who has vowed to commit himself or herself to the liberation of all beings.
Brahma. The Creator-God of the famous medieval Hindu triad of deities, which is known as tri-mûrti. The other two are Vishnu (as Preserver) and Shiva (as Destroyer). Brahma must be carefully distinguished from brahman, which is the eternal, impersonal foundation of existence transcending all deities.
Brahmâcârya (“brahmic conduct”). The practice of chastity in thought, word, and deed, which is regarded as one of the fundamental moral disciplines (yama) of Yoga.
Brahman. The Absolute according to Vedânta; the transcendental ground of existence, which is distinct from Brahma, the Creator. See also âtman, sac-cid-ânanda.
Brâhmana. (i) A member of the priestly class of Hindu society, a brahmin. (ii) A type of ritual text explaining the hymns of the Vedas as they are relevant to the sacrificial ritualism of the brahmins.
Buddha (“awakened”). Title of Gautama, founder of Buddhism.
Buddhi (“awareness, wisdom”). The higher, intuitive mind, or faculty of wisdom. This term is also used to denote “thought” or “cognition.” See also citta, manas.
Cakra (“wheel”), (i) A psychoenergetic center of the body, of which Tantrism and Hatha-Yoga typically distinguish seven: mûlâd- hara, svddhishthana, manipura, anâhata, vishuddha, ajna, and sahasrara. These are aligned along the spinal axis and form part of the body of the serpent power (kundalinî-shakti).
Caturtha (“fourth”). The transcendental Self, as the fourth and ultimate or real state (avastha) of consciousness, the other three being the normal waking state, dream sleep, and deep sleep.
Cit (“awareness, consciousness”). Pure Awareness, or the transcendental Consciousness beyond all thought; the eternal witness. See also âtman, purusha.
Citta (“consciousness, mind”). The finite mind, psyche, or consciousness, which is dependent on the play of attention, as opposed to cit. See also buddhi, manas.
Darshana (“vision”), (i) Inner or external vision, (ii) Sighting of an adept, which is considered auspicious, (iii) A philosophical system, or school of thought. Hinduism recognizes six classical perspectives: Yoga, Sâmkhya, Mûnâmsâ, Vedânta, Nyâya, and Vaisheshika.
Dattâtreya. A sage connected with the Avadhûta tradition who became deified as an incarnation of God Shiva.
Deha (“body”). The physical body, also called shartra.
Deva (“shining one, god”). Usually this word refers to one of the many deities of the Hindu pantheon. They are envisioned as powerful beings in subtle dimensions of existence. The term can also stand for the Divine itself. Cf. devî.
Devatâ (“deity”). See deva, ishta-devatâ.
Devî (“goddess”). The Divine conceived in its feminine aspect. Cf. deva.
Dhâranâ (“holding”). Concentration, the sixth limb (anga) of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga, consisting of the prolonged focusing of attention on a single mental object and leading to meditation (dhyâna).
Dharma (“bearer”), (i) The cosmic law or order, (ii) Morality or virtue, as one of the legitimate concerns of a human being (purusha- artha) sanctioned by Hinduism. It is understood as a manifestation or reflection of the divine law. (iii) Teaching, doctrine, (iv) Quality, as opposed to substance (dharmin).
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