9. J. Ing, ‘The Mainz Indulgences of 1454/5’, British Library Journal (1983), 14–31; F. Heal, ‘The Bishops and the Printers’, The Prelate in England and Europe 1300–1560, ed. M. Heale (Woodbridge 2014), p. 142; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 304–7; J. Hankins, ‘Renaissance Crusaders’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 49 (1995), pp. 117–18.
10. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 305; Capystranus, ed. S. H. A. Shepherd, Middle English Romances(New York and London 1985), pp. 391–408.
11. J. W. Bohnstedt, Infidel Scourge of God (Philadelphia 1968), passim.
12. M. Andrieu, Le pontificale romain au môyen âge (Vatican 1940), vol. III, 30, 228, 243, 330.
13. Trans. Documents on the Later Crusades: 1274–1588, ed. N. Housley (Basingstoke 1996), pp. 147–54; idem, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat, p. 84, for Carvajal’s crosses; Paviot, ‘Burgundy and the Crusade’, p. 79, for Ghent crucesignati.
14. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 308; for Axel, Paviot, ‘Burgundy and the Crusade’, p. 79.
15. A. Linder, Raising Arms: Liturgy in the Struggle to Liberate Jerusalem in the Late Middle Ages (Turnhout 2003).
16. N. Housley, ‘Crusading as Social Revolt: The Hungarian Peasant Uprising of 1514’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 49 (1998), 1–28.
17. See the commentary on Perault’s work throughout Housley, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat.
18. P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusade (Amsterdam 1940), pp. 82–95.
19. Memoirs of a Renaissance Pope: The Commentaries of Pius II, trans. F. A. Gragg, ed. L. C. Gabel (London 1960), p. 237; for Gilbert of Tournai’s comments, Crusade and Christendom, trans. J. Bird et al. (Philadelphia 2013), p. 455.
20. E. Charrière, ed., Négotiations de la France dans le Levant, vol. I (Paris 1848), p. 47.
21. For a descriptive summary, N. Housley, The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: from Lyons to Alcazar (Oxford 1992), pp. 291–321; for Portuguese bulls, C.-M. de Witte, ‘Les bulles pontificales et l’expansion portugaise au XVe siècle’, Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique, xlviii (1953), 683–718; xlix (1954), 438–61; li (1956), 413–53, 809–36; liii (1958), 1–46, 443–71; idem, Les lettres papales concernant l’expansion portugaise au XVIe siècle (Uznach 1986); J. Goñi Gaztambide, Historia de la bula de la cruzada en España (Vitoria 1958); and above, pp. 300–5.
22. Trans. Documents on the Later Middle Ages, ed. Housley, pp. 156–62 at p. 158.
23. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels, pp. 119–52.
24. Hankins, ‘Renaissance Crusaders’, pp. 121–2.
25. A. Milhou, Colón y su mentalidad mesiánica en el ambiente franciscanista español (Valladolid 1983); A. Hamdani, ‘Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 99 (1979), 39–48.
26. J. Muldoon, ‘Papal Responsibility for the Infidel: Another Look at Alexander VI’s Inter Cetera’, Catholic Historical Review, 64 (1978), 168–84; trans. of Inter Cetera and the Tordesillas treaty, F. G. Davenport, ed., European Treaties bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependencies to 1648 (Washington, DC 1917), pp. 61–3, 86–100.
27. Housley, Later Crusades, pp. 311–12. For a wider view, J. J. Lopez-Portillo, ‘Another Jerusalem’ (Leiden 2018).
28. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels, pp. 139–52; A. Grafton, New Worlds: Ancient Texts (Cambridge, MA 1992), pp. 136–7; A. Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge 1982), esp. pp. 15–16, 29, 30–8, 50–3, 65–118.
29. Housley, Later Crusades, p. 249; for a general survey, pp. 234–66.
30. C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (London 1998), p. 103; idem, England and the Crusades, p. 359 and n. 74.
31. S. Morland, The History of the Evangelical Churches of the Valleys of Piedmont (London 1658), pp. 196–214, for the papal bull; E. Cameron, The Reformation of the Heretics (Oxford 1984), pp. 38, 46.
32. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 343–5, 351–4, 360–7.
33. N. Housley, Religious Warfare in Europe 1400–1536 (Oxford 2002), pp. 194–8; B. B. Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris (Oxford 1991).
34. Housley, Religious Warfare, pp. 190–3, 199–204; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 324–42, quotation at p. 326; idem, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 906–12.
35. Trans. Documents on the Later Crusades, ed. Housley, pp. 132–3 and note 2.
36. Gesta Henrici Quinti, ed. F. Taylor and J. S. Roskell (Oxford 1975), pp. 78–9, 88–9, 146–7, 150–1.
37. Housley, Religious Warfare, pp. 120–3; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 149, 360, 363; idem, God’s War, p. 908 and refs.
38. C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011), pp. 41–50.
39. E.g. Pius II, Commentaria, vol. I, ed. M. Meserve and M. Simonetta (Cambridge, MA 2003), pp. 134, 136, 160, 209, 264.
40. Philippe de Mézières, Epistre lamentable et consolatoire, ed. K. de Lettenhove, Oeuvres de Froissart, vol. xvi (Brussels 1872), pp. 444–523; C. J. Tyerman, ‘New Wine in Old Skins? Crusade Literature and Crusading in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Later Middle Ages’, Byzantines, Latins, and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World after 1150, ed. J. Harris, C. Holmes and E. Russell (Oxford 2012), pp. 265–89.
41. On this see Housley, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat, p. 126.
42. R. Black, Benedetto Accolti and the Florentine Renaissance (Cambridge 1985), pp. 299–315.
43. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 39–40, 59–60; J. Herold, De bello sacro (Basel 1560); R. Knolles, The Generall Historie of the Turks (London 1603).
44. Quoted Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 349 and 350, and generally, pp. 346–54.
45. Foxe, ‘The History of the Turks’, Acts and Monuments, vol. IV, 62; generally, pp. 18–122, esp. p. 41 (Belgrade 1456), 55–62 (Vienna 1529), and prayer, pp. 121–2. See now L. Mannion, Narrating the Crusades (Cambridge 2014), esp. pp. 151, 203–11; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 348.
46. F. Bacon, Advertisement Touching an Holy Warre, Works, ed. J. Spedding et al. (London 1859), vol. VII, p. 18 and generally, pp. 17–36.
47. Bacon, Advertisement, p. 24.
13 CRUSADING: OUR CONTEMPORARY?
1. D. Hume, History of Great Britain (London 1761), vol. I, 209.
2. C. Tyerman, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011), p. 222 and n. 12, p. 242, and for what follows, chaps 2–4.
3. See Seven Myths of the Crusades, ed. A. J. Andrea and A. Holt (Indianapolis 2015), although this inadvertently demonstrates the de haut en bas solipsism of professional academics as much as the ignorance of popular opinion.
4. T. Fuller, The Historie of the Holy Warre (Cambridge 1639), commendatory verse in Preface.
5. C. Fleury, Discours au l’histoire ecclésiastique (Paris 1691, 1763 edn), p. 267.
6. Quoted, with refs, Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, p. 84 and generally, pp. 77–91.
7. Quoted, with refs, Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, p. 90.
8. Heinrich von Sybel, The History and Literature of the Crusades, trans. Lady Duff Gordon (London 1861), p. 1.
9. Trans. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, p. 142 and generally, pp. 141–50.
10. History and Literature of the Crusades, trans. Lady Duff Gordon, p. 312.
11. E. Siberry, ‘Images of the Crusades in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, Oxford History of the Crusades, ed. J. Riley-Smith (Oxford 1999), pp. 366–7.
12. Eg N. L. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps (Ithaca, NY 2012), pp. 6–8.
13. J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades, Christianity and Islam (New York 2008).
14. B. Z. Kedar, ‘Joshua Prawer (1917–90)’, Mediterranean Historical Review, 5 (1990), pp. 107–16; Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 170–6, 180, n. 30.
15. J. L. La Monte review of P. Rousset, Les origines et les caractères de la première croisade, Speculum, 23 (1948), 329–30.
16. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 182–92.
17. Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 192–9; cf. M. Dinshaw, Outlandish Knight: The Byzantine Life of Steven Runciman (London 2016).
18. C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades:Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), pp. 589–616; E. Sivan, ‘Modern Arabic Historiography of the Crusades’, Asian and African Studies, 8 (1972), 109–49; A. Mallett, ‘Muslim Memories of the Crusades’, Remembering the Crusades and Crusading, ed. M. Cassidy-Welch (London 2017), p. 230; M. Determann, ‘The Crusades in Arab School Textbooks’, Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 19 (2008), pp. 199–214; Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 235–42; P. Cobb, The Race for Paradise (Oxford 2014); The Crusades: An Arab perspective, TV documentary, Al-Jazeera English, December 2016 (available on YouTube). On Israelis and the crusade, R. Ellenblum, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories (Cambridge 2007), pp. 57–61; M. Benvenisti, Scared Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948 (London 2000), esp. pp. 192–3, 299–303, 309–10; Tyerman, Debate on the Crusades, pp. 170–6 and refs nn. 26, 30, 36, 37, pp. 180–1.
19. C. S. Jensen, ‘Appropriating History: Remembering the Crusades in Latvia and Estonia’, Remembering the Crusades and Crusading, ed. M. Cassidy-Welch (London 2017), pp. 231–46.
POSTSCRIPT
1. F. M. Powicke, The Thirteenth Century (Oxford 1962), p. 80.
2. D. Hume, History of Great Britain (London 1761), vol. I, p. 209.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Introduction
On definition, J. Riley-Smith, What Were the Crusades? (London; many edns since 1977); G. Constable, ‘The Historiography of the Crusades’, Crusaders and Crusading in the Twelfth Century (Farnham 2008); C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (London 1998); idem, The Debate on the Crusades (Manchester 2011); on narratives, structures and analysis of the movement, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006); idem, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015); H. E. Mayer, The Crusades (Oxford 1988); N. Housley, Fighting for the Cross (London 2008); A. Jotischky, Crusading and the Crusader States (Harlow 2004); J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History (London 1987 and edns to 2014); in addition on ideology, F. H. Russell, The Just War in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1975); C. Erdmann, The Origin of the Idea of the Crusade, trans. from 1935 German original M. W. Baldwin and W. Goffart (Princeton 1977); on the legend of Charlemagne, M. Gabriele, An Empire of Memory (Oxford 2011); on crusade institutions, J. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (Madison 1969); A. Bysted, The Crusade Indulgence: Spiritual Rewards and the Theology of the Crusades c. 1095–1216 (Leiden 2015); on Jews and the crusades, R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (Berkeley 1987); idem, God, Humanity and History: The Hebrew First Crusade Narratives (Berkeley 2000); on women, S. Edgington and S. Lambert, Gendering the Crusades (New York 2002); N. Hodgson, Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative (Woodbridge 2007); on criticism, M. Aurell, Des chrétiens contre les croisades (Paros 2013); E. Siberry, Criticism of Crusading 1095–1274 (Oxford 1985); P. Throop, Criticism of the Crusades (Amsterdam 1940).
Chapter One
In general, see New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. IV, ed. D. Luscombe and J. Riley-Smith (Cambridge 2004). On Islam and the Near East, New Cambridge History of Islam, ed. M. Cook (Cambridge 2010); J. P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East 600–1800 (Cambridge 2003); The Cambridge History of Egypt, vol. I: Islamic Egypt 640–1517, ed. C. F. Petry (Cambridge 1998); P. M. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford 2014); C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999); A. C. S. Peacock, Early Seljuk History: A New Interpretation (London 2010), and idem, The Great Seljuk Empire (Edinburgh 2015); on environment, R. Ellenblum, The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East 950–1072 (Cambridge 2012); on trade, R. S Lopez and I. W. Raymond, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World (New York 1955); E. Ashtor, Economic and Social History of the Near East in the Middle Ages (London 1976); S. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza (Berkeley 1967–88); P. Frankopan, The Silk Roads. A New History of the World (London 2015), chaps 7 and 8; R. D. Smith, ‘Calamity and Transition: Re-imagining Italian Trade in the Eleventh-Century Mediterranean’, Past and Present, 228 (2015), 14–56; on Spain, H. Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal (London 1996); D. Wasserstein, The Caliphate on the West (Oxford 1993); idem, The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings: Politics and Society in Islamic Spain 1002–1086 (Princeton 1985); on Byzantium, Oxford History of Byzantium, ed. C. Mango (Oxford 2002); Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500–1492, ed. J. Shepard (Cambridge 2008); M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204 (London 1984); K. Cigaar, Western Travellers to Constantinople: The West and Byzantium 962–1204 (Leiden 1996); P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London 2012); on the Normans in southern Italy, G. Loud, The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest (London 2000); on Fatimid influence on Norman Sicily, J. Johns, Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily (Cambridge 2002).
Chapter Two
The First Crusade was then and is now one of the most heavily studied episodes of European medieval history. The scholarly literature is commensurately vast. What follows is anglophone, general, and inevitably highly selective. On context and narrative, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006). On the Muslim background and response, C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), and P. M. Cobb, The Race for Paradise (Oxford 2014). On the western European contribution, with the stress on piety, J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London 1986) and The First Crusaders 1095–1131 (Cambridge 1997). J. France’s essay ‘Patronage and the Appeal of the First Crusade’ on recruitment, Colin Morris’s on ‘Peter the Hermit and the Chroniclers’ and Jonathan Shepard’s ‘Cross-Purposes: Alexius Comnenus and the First Crusade’ in J. Phillips, ed., The First Crusade: Origins and Impact (Manchester 1997), provide important interrogations of the evidence. A distinctive take, emphasising the apocalyptic dimension, is J. Rubinstein, Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for the Apocalypse (New York 2011). A gallant attempt at material sociological analysis is C. Kostick, The Social Structure of the First Crusade (Leiden 2008). The best military account is J. France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge 1994). Planning is discussed in C. Tyerman, How to Plan a Crusade: Reason and Religious War in the High Middle Ages (London 2015). Some important insights into logistics are contained in the contributions in J. H. Pryor, ed., Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades (Aldershot 2006), and on contemporary attitudes and historiography in M. Bull and D. Kempf, Writing the Early Crusades: Text, Transmission and Memory (Woodbridge 2014). The Byzantine perspective is explored in P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London 2012), and using a wider lens, J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades (London 2003). For the 1096 anti-Jewish attacks, R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Crusade (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1987). For the memorialisation of the First Crusade, N. L. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps (Ithaca, NY 2012).
Chapter Three
For overviews, apart from the general histories already cited, M. Barber, The Crusader States (London 2012); A. Jotischky, Crusading and the Crusader States (Harlow 2004). On the Jerusalem nobility, J. Riley-Smith, The Feudal Nobility and the Kingdom of Jerusalem 1174–1277 (London 1973); S. Tibble, Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291 (Oxford 1989); H. E. Mayer, The Crusades (2nd edn Oxford 1988), and his many articles, e.g. ‘Studies in the History of Queen Melisende’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 26 (1972), 95–182. For Antioch, T. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130 (Woodbridge 2000); A. D. Buck, The Principality of Antioch and its Frontiers in the Twelfth Century (Woodbridge 2017); for Edessa, obliquel
y, C. MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance (Philadelphia 2008); for Tripoli, K. J. Lewis, The Counts of Tripoli and Lebanon in the Twelfth Century (London 2017); see also N. Morton, The Field of Blood: The Battle for Aleppo and the Remaking of the Medieval Middle East (New York 2018). For the settlement debate, J. Prawer, Crusader Institutions (Oxford 1980) and The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (London 1972), and the major revision by R. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge 1998). B. Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States: The Secular Church (London 1980), can be supplemented by Jotischky and MacEvitt above. For Muslim reactions, as well as C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999), A. Mallett, Popular Muslim Reactions to the Franks in the Levant 1097–1291 (Farnham 2014). The cultural mix has been a theme of B. Z. Kedar, for example his collected papers The Franks in the Levant (Aldershot 1993). An indicative selection of papers may be found in East and West in the Crusader States, ed. K. Cigaar et al. (Louvain 1996); Occident et Proche Orient, ed. I. Draelants et al. (Louvain 2000); and The Crusades and the Near East: Cultural Histories, ed. C. Kostick (London 2011). For the most obvious symbol of Frankish power, H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994), and R. Ellenblum, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories (Cambridge 2007). For art, J. Folda, The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land 1098–1187 (Cambridge 1997). A usefully full bibliography can be found in Barber, Crusader States.
Chapter Four
As in Chapter Three, see M. Barber, The Crusader States (London 2012); A. Jotischky, Crusading and the Crusader States (Harlow 2004); C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006); P. M. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford 2014). On the Military Orders, M. Barber, The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple (Cambridge 1994); J. Riley-Smith, The Knights Hospitaller in the Levant c. 1070–1309 (Basingstoke 2012); A. Forey, The Military Orders from the Twelfth to the Fourteenth Centuries (Basingstoke 1992). On the Second Crusade, J. Phillips, Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom (New Haven and London 2007), but cf. A. Forey, ‘The Second Crusade: Scope and Objectives’, Durham University Journal, lxxxvi (1994), 165–75, and G. Loud, ‘Some Reflections on the Failure of the Second Crusade’, Crusades, 4 (2005), 1–14. On the Muslim ‘revival’ and unification, C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh 1999); P. M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517 (London 1986); N. Elisséef, ‘The Reaction of Syrian Muslims after the Foundation of the First Latin Kingdom’, Crusaders and Muslims in Twelfth-Century Syria, ed. M. Shatzmiller (Leiden 1993), pp. 162–72, and Nur al-Din: Un grand prince musulman de Syrie au temps des croisades (Damascus 1967); and S. Humphreys, ‘Zengids, Ayyubids and Seljuks’, New Cambridge Medieval History, IV, ii, ed. D. Luscombe and J. Riley-Smith (Cambridge 2004), pp. 721–52; on Saladin, A.-M. Eddé, Saladin, trans. J. M. Todd (Cambridge, MA 2011); M. Lyons and D. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War (Cambridge 1982); on Islamic thought, J. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 (Cambridge 2003). On Outremer’s defence, H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994); S. Tibble, Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291, and the classic R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare 1097–1193 (Cambridge 1956). For Outremer and the west, J. Phillips, Defenders of the Holy Land: Relations between the Latin East and the West 1119–1187, for a study in commitment; for memorialisation, N. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps (Ithaca, NY 2012), and C. Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusade (London 1998).
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