3 N. S. Timasheff, The Great Retreat, pp. 223, 309.
4 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema, p. 187.
5 See Istoriya Vsesoyuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii, ch. 12.
6 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 14, pp. 142, 152.
7 Ibid., p. 144.
8 Ibid., p. 179.
9 Ibid., pp. 164–5.
10 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, no. 2, pp. 279–81.
11 S. and B. Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation?, pp. 432–46.
12 Ibid., p. 152.
13 SXVIII, p. 36.
14 SXVIII, p. 26.
15 T. H. Rigby, ‘Was Stalin a Disloyal Patron?’, p. 132.
16 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 38.
17 K. Simonov, Glazami, pp. 378–9.
18 P. Juviler, Revolutionary Law and Order, ch. 3.
19 Rodina, no. 3 (1994), p. 79.
20 D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialisation, ch. 8.
21 N. Jasny, The Socialized Agriculture of the Soviet Union, pp. 341–2.
22 R. Conquest, Industrial Workers in the USSR, pp. 103–5.
23 N. Jasny, The Socialized Agriculture, p. 342.
24 See note 20.
25 I owe this metaphor to Katharine Braithwaite’s intervention in a lecture I was giving.
26 D. Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis.
27 N. S. Timasheff, The Great Retreat, pp. 197, 200–202.
28 F. Chuev (ed.), Tak govoril Kaganovich, p. 59.
29 Pravda, no. 179, 1 July 1937 and following copies: no doubt Stalin also wanted to avoid being held personally responsible for the Great Terror if it went wrong and he was brought to account for it.
30 R. O. G. Urch, The Rabbit King of Siberia, chs 13, 19.
31 M. Gor’kii, L. Averbakh and S. Firin (eds), Belomorsko–Baltiiskii Kanal imeni Stalina.
32 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, pp. 72–6.
33 A. Bergson, The Real National Income of Soviet Russia since 1928, p. 251.
34 A. S. Shinkarchuk, Obshchestvennoe mnenie, p. 37.
35 Ibid., pp. 46–7.
36 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 14, p. 238.
37 S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, pp. 289–96.
38 Yu. A. Polyakov, V. B. Zhiromskaya and I. N. Kiselëv, ‘Polveka molchaniya’, p. 69.
39 A. Markevich and M. Harrison, ‘Great War, Civil War, and Recovery: Russia’s National Income, 1923 to 1928’, Journal of Economic History, no. 3 (2011), pp. 688–9 and 694.
40 J. D. Barber and R. W. Davies, ‘Employment and Industrial Labour’, p. 103; M. Harrison, ‘National Income’ in The Economic Transformation, p. 53.
41 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, no. 2, pp. 272–9. On the complexities of social attitudes in the 1930s see S. Davies, Public Opinion in Stalin’s Russia.
42 A. Inkeles and R. M. Bauer, The Soviet Citizen. Daily Life in a Totalitarian Society, pp. 234–6.
43 Quoted in Khlevnyuk, 1937-y, p. 88–9; and D. A. Volkogonov, Stalin, vol. 1, part 2, p. 58.
13 The Second World War (1939–1945)
1 A. di Biagio, Le Origini dell’isolazionismo Sovietico, ch. 1.
2 J. Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security, pp. 121, 125, 156–7; R. C. Nation, Black Earth, Red Star, pp. 101–2; S. Pons, Stalin e la Guerra Inevitabile, pp. 122–3.
3 I am grateful to Silvio Pons for clarifying issues of Soviet foreign policy in the late 1930s.
4 J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, p. 17.
5 J. Erickson, The Soviet High Command, pp. 576, 582.
6 J. Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle, p. 225.
7 S. Pons, Stalin e la Guerra Inevitabile, pp. 273–5.
8 R. MacNeal, Stalin, p. 221.
9 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 46.
10 V. N. Zemtsov, ‘Prinuditel’nye migratsii iz Pribaltiki’, p. 4; K. Sword, Deportation and Exile. Poles in the Soviet Union, pp. 6–7, 13–14.
11 L. Rotundo, ‘Stalin and the Outbreak of War in 1941’, p. 291.
12 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 50.
13 J. Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad, pp. 576, 582.
14 K. Simonov, Glazami, pp. 258–9.
15 See the materials in G. A. Bordyugov (ed.), Gotovil li Stalin nastupatel’nuyu voinu protiv Gitlera?; V. N. Kiselev, ‘Upryamye fakty nachala voiny’, p. 78; V. D. Danilov, ‘Gotovil li general’nyi shtab Krasno’ Armii uprezh-dayushchii udar po Germanii?’, p. 88.
16 IA, no. 2 (1995), p. 30.
17 Znamya, no. 6 (1990), p. 165.
18 J. Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad, ch. 3.
19 Yu. A. Gor’kov, Kreml’. Stavka. Genshtab, pp. 79–80.
20 D. A. Volkogonov, Stalin, vol. 2, part 2, p. 191.
21 V. Kumanëv, ‘Iz vospominaniyakh o voennykh godakh’, pp. 68–75.
22 J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, p. 41.
23 Ibid., p. 50.
24 Gor’kov, Kreml’. Stavka. Genshtab, p. 155.
25 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 15, p. 1.
26 See K. Simonov’s record of an interview with Konev, Glazami, p. 360.
27 G. Rittersporn, Simplifications staliniennes, p. 248.
28 Neizvestnaya Rossiya, vol. 2, pp. 63–5.
29 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 389.
30 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 65.
31 M. Harrison, ‘The Second World War’, pp. 250–52.
32 J. Erickson, The Road to Berlin, p. 533.
14 CODA: Suffering and Struggle (1941–1945)
1 H. Hunter and J. M. Szyrmer, Faulty Foundations. Soviet Economic Policies.
2 W. Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction, p. 146.
3 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Agriculture’, p. 126.
4 N. F. Bugai, L. P. Beriya – I. Stalinu: ‘Soglasno Vashemu ukazaniyu’, p. 56 ff.
5 A. Avtorkhanov, ‘The Chechens and the Ingush during the Soviet Period’, p. 47.
6 I. Fleischhauer, ‘The Ethnic Germans under Nazi Rule’, p. 96.
7 C. Andreyev, Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement, pp. 199–200.
8 E. Bacon, The Gulag at War, pp. 78, 148.
9 N. S. Patolichev, Ispytanie na zrelost’, pp. 79, 88, 137, 282.
10 Skrytaya pravda voiny: 1941 god, p. 260.
11 W. Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction, p. 180.
12 Skrytaya pravda voiny, p. 342.
13 Ibid., p. 364.
14 E. Bacon, The Gulag, p. 24.
15 V. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 405–6.
16 Soprotivlenie v Gulage. Vospominaniya. Pis’ma. Dokumenty, p. 132.
17 J. Rossi, Spravochnik po GULagu, vol. 1, p. 40.
18 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema, pp. 252–3.
19 Krasnaya zvezda, 21 June 1989.
20 P. J. S. Duncan, ‘Orthodoxy and Russian Nationalism in the USSR’, p. 315.
21 P. J. S. Duncan, ‘Russian Messianism: a Historical and Political Analysis’, p. 316–17.
22 Pravda, 21 April 1942.
23 It must be added that the RSFSR did not escape German occupation: about thirty million Soviet citizens had lived in parts of the RSFSR that fell into the hands of the Wehrmacht by the end of 1941: see N. I. Kondakova and V. N. Main, Intelligentsiya Rossii, p. 91.
24 Ye. S. Senyavskaya, 1941–1945: Frontovoe Pokolenie, p. 105.
25 Ibid., pp. 83, 104.
26 Ibid., pp. 108–9.
27 Ibid., pp. 108–9, 170.
28 J. D. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, p. 148.
29 M. Harrison, ‘Soviet Production and Employment in World War Two’, p. 22.
30 Yu. V. Arutunyan, Sovetskoe krest’yanstvo, pp. 360–66.
31 OA, Cherkess Autonomous Region file: location unrecorded, p. 117.
32 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Population’, p. 78.
33 In fact Stalin’s scorched-earth policy for the retreating Red Army in 1941 limited the benefit for the German economy.
> 34 S. Kudryashëv, ‘Collaboration on the Eastern Front’, pp. 15, 17.
35 A. Dallin, German Rule in Russia, p. 477.
36 File on Gulyai-Pole in OA, unrecorded file number, p. 266.
37 Skrytaya pravda voiny, pp. 266–8.
38 S. Kudryashëv, ‘Collaboration’, p. 44.
39 A. Dallin, German Rule in Russia, p. 209.
40 Ye. S. Senyavskaya, 1941–1945, p. 141.
41 R. MacNeal, Stalin, pp. 248–50.
42 G. Bordyugov and A. Afanas’ev, ‘Ukradënnaya Pobeda’; S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, pp. 293–4.
43 Ye. S. Senyavskaya, 1941–1945, p. 79.
PART THREE
15 The Hammers of Peace (1945–1953)
1 S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, ‘Population’, p. 78.
2 M. V. Filimoshin, ‘Poteri grazhdanskogo naseleniya’, p. 124.
3 R. Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, p. 118.
4 This was so sensitive a topic that Nikita Khrushchëv revealed it to the Central Committee many years later, in July 1953, only in the strictest confidence: see R. Service, ‘The Road to the Twentieth Party Congress’, p. 237.
5 OA, Cherkessian Autonomous Province file, p. 117.
6 P. Levi, The Truce.
7 This had been true also at the end of the First Five-Year Plan: another ‘triumph’ marred for him by the attendant menacé to his regime.
8 E. Yu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, p. 72.
9 An exception was Andrei Sakharov; but even he, after graduating in 1942, became an armaments factory engineer for the rest of the war.
10 E. Yu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, pp. 39–40.
11 V. P. Popov, Krest’yanstvo i gosudarstvo, pp. 261–80.
12 E. Yu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, p. 41.
13 See the account of A. S. Belyakov’s recollections of A. A. Zhdanov’s description of a meeting of central political leaders: G. Arbatov, Svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 377.
14 E. Yu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, p. 52.
15 Ibid., p. 43.
16 Pravda, 25 May 1945.
17 V. N. Zemskov, ‘Prinuditel’nye migratsii iz Pribaltiki’, pp. 13–14.
18 Ibid., p. 5.
19 J. Rossi, Spravochnik po GULagu, vol. 1, p. 53.
20 E. Bacon, The Gulag, pp. 93–4.
21 Calculated from ibid., p. 24.
22 D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, p. 193.
23 W. Hahn, Postwar Soviet Politics, pp. 98–101.
24 F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il Sistema, pp. 282–8.
25 T. Dunmore, Soviet Politics, 1945–1953, chs 3, 4.
26 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 290.
27 T. Dunmore, The Stalinist Command Economy, ch. 5.
28 A. Nove, Economic History, p. 293.
29 A. Nove, ‘Industry’, p. 62.
30 Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, p. 216.
31 A. Nove, Economic History, p. 293.
32 Ibid., p. 305.
33 A. McAuley, Economic Welfare in the Soviet Union, pp. 33–4; and A. McAuley, ‘Social Policy’ in Khrushchev and Khrushchevism, p. 141.
34 A. McAuley, Economic Welfare, pp. 33–4; M. B. Smith, ‘Individual Forms of Ownership in the Urban Housing Fund of the USSR, 1944–64’, pp. 304–5.
35 M. Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, p. 133.
36 A. Agosti, Togliatti, p. 275.
37 A. Polonsky (ed.), The Great Powers and the Polish Question, p. 246.
38 The Cominform. Minutes of the Three Conferences, 1947/1948/1949, pp. 50, 178, 428, 450.
39 Ibid., p. 390.
40 F. Fejtö, Histoire des démocraties populaires, pp. 279–80.
41 S. Goncharov, J. W. Lewis and X. Litai, Stalin, Mao and the Korean War, ch. 4 ff.
16 The Despot and his Masks
1 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 357.
2 Kommunist, no. 7 (1989), p. 68.
3 R. Richardson, The Long Shadow. Inside Stalin’s Family, p. 44.
4 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 66.
5 I. V. Stalin. Kratkaya biografiya, p. 5.
6 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 15, p. 204.
7 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 119.
8 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 92.
9 A. Adzhubei, Te desyat’ let, p. 62.
10 D. Deletant, ‘Language Policy and Linguistic Trends in Soviet Moldavia’, pp. 196–7.
11 It must be added that the titular nationalities of some Soviet republics also behaved imperialistically towards their own national minorities. For example, Abkhaz and Ossetian were eliminated from the schools in Georgia.
12 In the 1930s, Shamil had stopped being treated as a positive anti-colonial rebel, but still not yet as a thoroughly reactionary figure.
13 D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, pp. 207–8.
14 Ibid., p. 211.
15 Marksizm i voprosy yazykoznaniya in Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 16, p. 159.
16 Moskovskie novosti, no. 32, 7 August 1988.
17 Kniga o vkusnoi i zdorovoi pishche, frontispiece.
18 V. Dunham, In Stalin’s Time. Middleclass Values in Soviet Fiction.
19 B. Kerblay, Modern Soviet Society, p. 207.
20 I. V. Stalin, Ekonomicheskie problemy sotsializma v SSSR, p. 100.
21 I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 16, pp. 115–19.
22 L. Opënkin, ‘I. V. Stalin: poslednii prognoz budushchego’, p. 113.
23 I. V. Stalin, Ekonomicheskie problemy, pp. 1–3.
24 Ibid., pp. 35–40.
25 The statue was completed and unveiled only in 1954.
26 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 214.
27 Ibid., p. 210.
28 Ibid., p. 211.
29 E. Radzinsky, Stalin, pp. 549–58.
30 R. W. Davies, ‘Forced Labour Under Stalin: The Archive Revelations’, p. 67.
31 Soprotivlenie v Gulage, p. 209.
17 ‘De-Stalinization’ (1953–1961)
1 See R. Service, ‘The Road to the Twentieth Party Congress’, pp. 234–8.
2 K. Simonov, Glazami, p. 242.
3 ITsKKPSS, no. 1 (1990), pp. 188–9.
4 Soprotivlenie v Gulage, p. 209.
5 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 28. The word used by Khrushchëv was opora.
6 D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, p. 317.
7 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 334.
8 N. Barsukov, ‘Kak sozdavalsya “zakrytyi doklad” Khrushchëva’, p. 11.
9 Vlad. Naumov, ‘Utverdit’ dokladchikom tovarishcha Khrushchëva’, p. 34.
10 See note 8.
11 ITsKKPSS, no. 3 (1989), p. 153; N. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 44.
12 See W. J. Tompson, Khrushchev: A Political Life, pp. 57–61.
13 This translation is more accurate than the more usual one, ‘cult of personality’, since it was Stalin’s entire role as an individual and not simply his personality that was the object of the cult.
14 N. Bethell, Gomulka. His Poland and his Communism, p. 210.
15 W. Lomax, Hungary, 1956.
16 IA, no. 2 (1994), pp. 60–61 (Molotov’s self-criticism).
17 SXXII, vol. 2, p. 588.
18 R. Medvedev, Khrushchev: The Years in Power, p. 74.
19 IA, no. 3 (1993), p. 9.
20 T. H. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 52.
21 S. Pons, ‘La politica organizzativa nell’apparato del PCUS’, pp. 200–204.
22 G. Breslauer, Khrushchev and Brezhnev as Leaders, p. 66.
23 Ibid., p. 86.
24 Ibid., p. 95.
25 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 64.
26 A. Adzhubei, Te desyat’ let, p. 150.
27 Ustav Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza, section three, clause 25.
28 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 336.
29 Narodnoe khozyaistvo SSSR v 1960 godu, pp. 441, 465, 467.
30 N. Yegorychev, ‘Posle XX s”ezda’, VIKPSS, no. 5 (1991), pp. 98–9.
31 R. Service, Lenin, vol. 3, p. 200.
32 A. di Biagio, ‘La teoria dell’ inevitabilità della guerra’, p. 73.
33 M. Beschloss, Kennedy vs. Khrushchev, pp. 328–31.
18 Hopes Unsettled (1961–1964)
1 R. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 146.
2 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 353.
3 D. Filtzer, ‘Labour’, p. 133; D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization, p. 103.
4 A. McAuley, ‘Social Policy’, p. 146.
5 P. H. Solomon, Soviet Criminologists and Criminal Policy, chs 3, 4.
6 I am grateful to Jovan Howe for pointing out the importance of the amalgamation policy on rural traditions and conditions.
7 M. Dobson, Khruschev’s Cold Summer: Gulag Returnees, Crime, and the Fate of Reform after Stalin, pp. 156–85; R. Hornsby, Protest, Reform and Repression in Khruschev’s Soviet Union, pp. 197–221.
8 D. Filtzer, ‘Labour’, p. 122.
9 N. Barsukov (ed.), ‘N. S. Khrushchëv o proekte tret’ei programmy KPSS’, pp. 1–8.
10 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 124.
11 SXXII, vol. 3, p. 119.
12 The Soviet Constitution of 1936 defined the USSR as ‘a state of the workers and peasants’.
13 SXXII, vol. 3, p. 303.
14 Ibid., p. 335.
15 V. E. Yesipov, ‘Povsednevnost’ ekonomiki Rossii’, p. 112.
16 IA, no. 3 (1993), pp. 117, 130–34.
17 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 143.
18 V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union, pp. 37, 94–5.
19 IA, no. 1 (1992), pp. 48–9.
20 V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union, pp. 37, 94–5.
21 Ibid., p. 194.
22 J. Anderson, Religion, State and Politics in the Soviet Union and Successor States, p. 55.
23 B. Kerblay, Modern Soviet Society, p. 282.
24 J. Anderson, Religion, State and Politics, pp. 61–2.
25 F. Burlatskii, Vozhdi i sovetniki, p. 122.
26 R. Garthoff, Soviet Strategy in the Nuclear Age, p. 57.
27 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 63.
28 N. S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 419.
29 N. S. Khrushchev, The Glasnost Tapes, p. 177.
30 A. Nove, An Economic History, p. 363.
19 Stabilization (1964–1970)
1 S. N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev on Khrushchev, ch. 2.
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