77 See: Jafar Pasha Al-Askari and Mustafa Tariq Al-Askari (Trans.), A Soldier’s Story: From Ottoman rule to Independent Iraq: The Memoirs of Jafar Pasha Al-Askari (London; Arabian Publishing, 2003).
78 Malak Badrawi, Political Violence in Egypt, 1910-1924: Secret Societies, Plots and Assassinations (Richmond, UK; Curzon, 2000) p. 116.
79 R S Gwatkin-Williams, Prisoners of the Red Desert: Being a Full and True History of the Men of the ‘Tara’ (London; Thornton Butterworth, 1919) pp. 25, 26.
80 Russell McGuirk, The Sanusi’s Little War: The Amazing Story of a Forgotten Conflict in the Western Desert, 1915-1917 (London; Arabian Publishing, 2007).
81 Lieutenant-General Sir Archibald Wavell, The Palestine Campaigns (London; Constable, 1928) p. 38.
82 See particularly Chapter 2, ‘The Penetration of the Desert’, in John W Gordon, The Other Desert War: British Special Forces in North Africa, 1940-1943 (New York; Greenwood, 1987).
83 T E Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom: A Triumph (Garden City, NY; Doubleday, 1938) pp. 544, 545.
84 E Bartholomew, Early Armoured Cars (Oxford; Shire Publications, 1988) p. 18.
85 For the fate of the guards see R S Gwatkin-Williams, Prisoners of the Red Desert: Being a Full and True History of the Men of the ‘Tara’ (London; Thornton Butterworth, 1919) p. 295 in particular, and also for the entire episode generally. See also: S C Rolls, Steel Chariots in the Desert: The First World War Experiences of a Rolls Royce Armoured Car Driver with the Duke of Westminster in Libya and in Arabia with T.E. Lawrence (London; Jonathan Cape, 1937); William Davies, The Sea and the Sand: The Story of HMS Tara and the Western Desert Force (Caernarfon; Gwynedd Archives and Museums Service, 1988). For the official documentation pertaining to the Senussi Campaign see: http://www.naval-history.net/WW1NavyBritishLGDispatchesArmy1916-17.htm
86 Claudio G Segrè, Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life (Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1987) p. 322.
87 Giorgio Rochat, ‘La repressione della resistenza in Cirenaica’ in Enzo Santarelli, Giorgio Rochat, Romain H Rainero and Luigi Goglia, Omar al-Mukhtar e la riconquista fascista della Libia (Milano; Marzorati, 1981) pp. 82-83.
8 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 10.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
1 Brigadier Allan Mallinson, ‘At Ease with their Heritage’ in History Today, Volume 61, Issue 7, July 2011, p. 38.
2 Rudyard Kipling writing to Colonel H W Feilden on 29 January 1913 relating a tale told to him by ‘young Garnier’ about the Italian army in Tripoli. See: Thomas Pinney (Ed.) The Letters of Rudyard Kipling, Volume 4: 1911-19 (Iowa City, IA; University of Iowa Press, 1999) pp. 145-6.
3 Camillo Pavan, Caporetto: storia, testimonianze, itinerari (Treviso; Camillo Pavan, 1997) p. 74. See also: Dario Ascolano, Luigi Capello: Biografia militare e politica (Ravenna; Longo, 1999).
4 Luigi Capello, Per la Verita (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1920) p. 7.
5 Quoted in John Whittam, The Politics of the Italian Army, 1861-1918 (London; Croom Helm, 1977) p. 193.
6 Paul M Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York; Random House, 1988) p. 205.
7 Edyth Hinkley, Mazzini: The Story of a Great Italian (New York; G P Putnam’s, 1924.) p. 123.
8 Allan R Becker, Problems in Desert Warfare (Quantico, VA; Marine Corps Combat Development Command, 1990) p. 4.
9 See: Ferdinando Pedriali, ‘Aerei italiani in Libia (1911-1912)’ in Storia Militare N° 170 - novembre 2007 pp. 31-40 and Carlo Rinaldi, ‘I dirigibili italiani nella campagna di Libia’ in Storia Militare N° 18 - marzo 1995 pp. 38-49.
10 Sebastiano Licheri, ‘Gli ordinamenti dell ‘aeronautica militare italiana dal 1884 al 1918’ in Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali Ufficio centrale per i beni archivistici, Le fonti per la storia militare italiana in età contemporanea. Atti del III seminario, Roma, 16-17 dicembre 1988 (Roma; Ediprint Service, 1993) p. 480
11 ‘Marconi Plans New Inventions as Useful as Wireless’ in The New York Times, 24 March 1912.
12 C L Fortescue, Wireless Telegraphy (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1913) p. 117. Sebastian Mantei, Von der Sandbüchse zum Post-und Telegraphenland: Der Aufbau des Kommunikationsnetzwerks in Deutsch-Südwestafrika (Windhoek; Namibia Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, 2007).
13 Horst Drechsler (Trans. Bernd Zollner), Let us Die Fighting: The Struggle of the Herero and Nama against German Imperialism 1884-1915 (Berlin; Akademie, 1980) pp. 193, 186.
14 Emilio De Bono, Nell’esercito nostro prima della guerra (Milano; Mondadori, 1931) p. 391.
15 The expression was derived from an article by Gaetano Salvemini, ‘Perché non si deve andare a Tripoli’ in La Voce, Anno III, n 33, 17 agosto 1911, pp 631-632. Salvemini was an historian, journalist, and founder of the socialist journal L’unita. See: Luigi Scoppola Iacopini, ‘Capitolo Terzo. Le vicende della comunita italiana in Libia 1956-1974’ in Gianluigi Rossi (Ed.), Italia-Libia. Storia di un dialogo mai interrotto (Roma; Apes, 2012) p. 111.
16 J Gentilli, Italian Roots in Australian Soil: Italian Migration to Western Australia 1829-1946 (Marangaroo, Western Australia; Italo-Australian Welfare Centre, 1983) p. 58.
17 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 35.
18 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 91.
19 Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was famously from Corsica, which only became French territory in 1768 following purchase from the Republic of Genoa. His parents were members of the Genoese nobility; Napoleon was then very nearly Genoese. Genoa was incorporated into the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in June 1815 by the Final Act of the Treaty of Vienna.
20 Gaetano V Cavallaro, The Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic, Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in the First World War 1914-1917 (Bloomington, IN; Xlibris, 1999) Volume I, p. xxi.
21 Winston S Churchill, The Hinge of Fate (London; Cassell, 1951) p. 81.
22 H P Wilmot, The Great Crusade: A New Complete History of the Second World War (Dulles, VA; Potomac, 2008) p. 116. John Strachey, the British Secretary of State for War 1950-51, addressed the matter in a speech in Parliament in 1953: ‘[…] when I was at the War Office I remember asking Sir William Slim the then CIGS about the disasters suffered by the Italians against which he had fought during much of the War. He at once replied that the Italian troops were just as brave as the troops of any other country and that the failure was in their selection of officers. They had never succeeded in recruiting an effective officer corps. We can never expect an army to be any better than its officers. That is one of the absolute limiting factors in the efficiency of an armed Service.’
23 John Whittam, The Politics of the Italian Army, 1861-1918 (London; Croom Helm, 1977) p. 24.
24 Eric G Hansen, The Italian Military Enigma (Quantico, VA; Command and Staff College, Education Center, 1988) p. 46.
25 Quoted by W T Stead, in an untitled posthumously published piece dated 1 April 1912 in The Review of Reviews for June 1912.
26 Aldobrandino Malvezzi, L’Italia e L’Islam in Libia (Firenze; Fratelli Treves, 1913) p. 186.
27 Angelo Del Boca, Italiani, brava gente?: un mito duro a morire (Vicenza; Neri Pozza, 2005) p. 112.
28 Francesco Nitti, L’Europa senza pace (Firenze; Bemporad & Figlio, 1921) p. 87.
SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Documents
The records of the Italian Army relating to the invasion of Tripoli are held in the Carteggio Libia at the Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito in Rome. The archive also holds material relating to the invasion of the Aegean Islands.
Documents from the political arena, can be found in the Carte Giolitti at the Archivio Centrale dello Stato, and in the Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Archivio di Gabinetto Casella
, also in the Italian capital.
Many of the documents from the Italian Archives appear in the official history of the Campagna di libia, published in five volumes between 1922 and 1927, by the Ministry of War and the historical office of the Army General Staff:
Volume I: Parte generale - operazione in Tripolitania dall’inizio della campagna alla occupazione di Punta Tagiura (ottobre-dicembre 1911) (Roma, Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione della Guerra, 1922).
Volume II: Operazioni in Tripolitania dal Dicembre 1911 (dopo l’occupazione di Punta Tagiura) alla fine dell’agosto 1912 (Roma, Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione della Guerra, 1923).
Volume III: Le operazioni a Homs, al confine tunisino e a Misurata (periodo ottobre 1911-agosto 1912) (Roma: Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione della Guerra, 1924).
Volume IV: Le operazioni in Cirenaica (periodo ottobre 1911-agosto 1912) (Roma: Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione della Guerra, 1925).
Volume V: Appendice (periodo ottobre 1911-Agosto 1912) (Roma; Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione della Guerra, 1927).
Documents relating to Italian naval operations are covered in two volumes published in 1918 and 1926 entitled Guerra italo-turca (1911-1912): Cronistoria delle operazioni navali.
Volume I: Roncagli, Giovanni (Ed.). Dalle origini al decreto di sovranità su la Libia (Milano; Ulrico Hoepli, 1918).
Volume II: Manfroni, Camillo (Ed.). Dal decreto di sovranità su la Libia alla conclusione della pace. (Roma; Stabilimento Poligrafico Editorial Romano, 1926).
In relation to the Aegean Islands, much of the documentation has been published in: Pasqualini, M G. L’esercito italiano nel Dodecaneso 1912-1943, speranze e realtà, i documenti dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito (Roma; Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, 2006).
There is of course a problem respecting Ottoman documents from the period inasmuch, to quote the modern Turkish historian Taner Akcam, ‘these sources are in the Ottoman language – Turkish written in Arabic script, with a strong influence from Persian and Arabic – and require special skills to read.’ Fortunately many of the relevant sources have been read and used in the Turkish Armed Forces history of the conflict: Ertuna, Hamdi. TSK [Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri] Tarihi Osmanli Devri, Osmanli-Italyan Harbi (1911-1912) (Ankara; Genelkurmay Basimevi, 1981). Similarly, documents relating to the Aegean Islands can be found in im ir, Bilâl N (Ed.). Ege Sorunu: Belgeler Cilt-1 1912-1913 (Ankara; Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1976). Greece has also published documents relating to these islands: Divanis, L, Constantopoulou, F et al. The Dodecanese: The Long Road to Union with Greece. Diplomatic Documents from the Historical Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Athens; Kastaniotis, 1997). See also: Stephanopoli, Jeanne Z. Les Iles de l’Egee Leurs Privileges (avec documents et notes statistiques) (Atene; Apostolopoulos, 1912).
The UK National Archives at Kew hold the records of Consular Court Cases in Egypt. FO 841/121 Hassib Ydlibiv (sic). Mohd. Sherif Smallwood k/a John Warren Stuart Smallwood.
Documents pertaining to the conflict in relation to the other European Great Powers can be found in various published works, the most important of which are:
Commission de publication des documents relatifs aux origines de la guerre de 1914. Documents diplomatiques francais 1871-1914. 3. serie (1911-1914) tome 1 (Paris; Imprimerie nationale, 1929).
Dugdale, E T S (Selected and Trans.). German Diplomatic Documents, 1871-1914.Vol. IV The Descent to the Abyss, 1911-14 (London: Methuen, 1931).
Gooch, G P and Temperley, H W V (Eds.). British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume V, The Near East, the Macedonian Problem and the Annexation of Bosnia, 1903-1909 (London; HMSO, 1928).
Gooch, G P and Temperley, H W V (Eds.). British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Vol. IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933).
Horne, Charles F, Austin, Walter F, and Ayres, Leonard P (Eds.). Source Records of the Great War, Volume 3, AD 1915 (Indianapolis, IN; The American Legion, 1931).
Pribram, Alfred Franzis. The Secret Treaties of Austria-Hungary 1879-1914 (Cambridge; Harvard University Press, 1920) Vol. I.
Scott, James Brown (Ed.). Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, Part I (New York; Oxford University Press, 1916).
Internet
Cour Permanente D’arbitrage, Affaire du Carthage. France contre Italie. Sentence Arbitrale, La Haye, Le 6
Mai 1913. http://untreaty.un.org/cod/riaa/cases/vol_XI/449-461.pdf
Cour Permanente D’arbitrage, Affaire du Manouba. France contre Italie. Sentence Arbitrale, La Haye, Le 6
Mai 1913. http://untreaty.un.org/cod/riaa/cases/vol_XI/463-479.pdf
Indian Census of 1911.
http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/old_report/Census_1911.html
Accounts by participants and eyewitnesses
Abbott, G F. The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912).
d’Aveline, Guy. La guerre à Tripoli, par un témoin oculaire (Paris; Charles Amat, 1912).
Bennett, Ernest N. With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912).
Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918).
Giolitti, Giovanni. Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II.
Irace, Tullio. With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912).
McClure, W K. Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913).
McCullagh, Francis. Italy’s War For A Desert: Being Some Experiences Of A War Correspondent With The Italians In Tripoli (Chicago, IL; F G Browne, 1913).
Marinetti, F T. La battaglia di Tripoli 26 ottobre 1911: vissuta e cantata da F T Marinetti (Milano; Edizioni Futuriste di Poesia, 1912).
Ostler, Alan. The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912).
Pàntano, Gherardo. Rapporto del 29 Luglio 1915. ‘Memoria confidenziale del Ministry delle Colonie’ in Ministero delle Colonie (Ed.), Libia: La ribellione in Tripolitania nell’anno 1915 (Roma; Tipografia del Senato, 1916)
Picciole, Felice. Diario di un bersagliere (Milano; Formichiere, 1974).
Remond, Georges. Aux Camps Turco-Arabes: Notes de Route et de guerre en Cyrénaïque et en Tripolitaine (Paris; Hachette, 1913).
Rossi, Captain Giuseppe. ‘Beschießung eines Aeroplans bei Tripolis’ in Bertha von Suttner. ‘Randglossen zur Zeitgeschichte’ in Alfred M Fried (Ed.), Die Friedens-Warte: Zeitschrift für zwischenstaatliche Organisation (Berlin; Zeitschrift für zwischenstaatliche Organisation, 1912).
Seppings Wright, H C. Two Years Under the Crescent (Boston; Small, Maynard, 1913).
Theilhaber, Felix A. Beim roten Halbmond vor Tripolis: Reiseerlebnisse von einer Fahrt ins türkisch-italienische Kriegsgebiet (Köln; Schaffstein, 1915).
Internet
Sacco, Luigi. Relazione circa le esperienze compiute dal Comm. Marconi nei giorni 16 e 17 dicembre 1911 a Tripoli. http://luigisacco.bonavoglia.eu/relazione_19111220.pdf
Accounts in Journals and Newspapers
Avanti
Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger
Cape Times
Daily Chronicle
Daily Express
Daily Mirror
La Domenica del Corriere
Evening Post
Flight: A Journal Devoted to the Interests, Practice, and Progress of Aerial Locomotion and Transport
Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno D’Italia.
Grey River Argus
Los Angeles Times
Le Matin
New York Times
Neue Freie Presse
L’Ouest-Éclair
Pittsburg Press
Popolo d’ Italia
La Republica
The Review of Reviews
&nb
sp; La Stampa
The Times
La Tribuna
La Voce
Vossische Zeitung
Secondary Sources
Abba, Giuseppe Cesare (Trans. ER Vincent). The Diary of One of Garibaldi’s Thousand (Westport, CT; Greenwood Press, 1981).
Abbasi, Muhammad Yusuf. London Muslim League, 1908-1928: An Historical Study (Islamabad; National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research, 1988).
Abbasi, Muhammad Yusuf. The Political Biography of Syed Ameer Ali (Lahore; Wajidalis, 1989).
Acton, Harold. The Last Bourbons of Naples (1825-1861) (London; Methuen, 1961).
Adanir, Fikret. ‘The Macedonians in the Ottoman Empire. 1878-1912’ in Andreas Kappeler in collaboration with Fikret Adanir and Alan O’Day (eds.), The Formation of National Elites (New York; New York University Press, 1992).
Adanir, Fikret. ‘The Socio-Political Environment of Balkan Nationalism: the Case of Ottoman Macedonia 1856-1912’ in Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, Michael G. Mulle, Stuart Woolf (Eds.), Regional and national identities in Europe in the XIXth and XXth centuries/Les identites regionales et nationales en Europe aux XIXe et XXe siecles (The Hague; Kluwer Law International, 1998).
Adejumobi, Saheed A. The History of Ethiopia (London; Greenwood, 2006).
Agoston, Gabor. Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Agoston, Gabor and Masters, Bruce. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (New York; Facts On File, 2007).
Ahmad, Feroz. The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908-1914 (Oxford; University Press, 1969).
Ahmad, Ishtiaq. ‘Turkish-Pakistan Relations: Continuity and Change’ in Mehmet Tahiroglu and Tareq Y
Ismael (Eds.), Turkey in the 21st Century: Changing Role in World Politics (Gazimagusa; Eastern Mediterranean University Press, 2000).
Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif. The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 2009).
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