by Rod Ellis
vertical variability This refers to the differences in learner language evident from one time to another. It reflects the development that is taking place in the learner’s interlanguage. It has been proposed that vertical variability mirrors the horizontal variability evident at a particular stage of development.
weak-interface position This acknowledges a disassociation between explicit and implicit knowledge but suggests that explicit knowledge plays a role in the processes involved in implicit learning—for example, by priming attention to linguistic exemplars in the input. Thus explicit knowledge contributes indirectly to the development of implicit knowledge.
working memory Working memory is where the key processes of perception, attention, and rehearsal take place. It is believed to play a central role in L2 acquisition and provides a link with long-term memory. There are different models of working memory but the model that figures most strongly in SLA research is the limited capacity model.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) This refers to ‘the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (Vygotsky 1978: 86). It is a term used in sociocultural SLA. Learning occurs when a zone of proximal development is constructed for the learner through mediation of one kind of another.
Bibliography
Abdullah, K. and H. Jackson. 1998. ‘Idioms and the language learner: contrasting English and Syrian Arabic’. Languages in Contrast 1: 83–107.
Abrahamsson, N. 2003. ‘Development and recoverability of L2 codas: a longitudinal study of Chinese/Swedish interphonology’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 25: 313–49.
Abrahamsson, N. and K. Hyltenstam. 2009. ‘Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny’. Language Learning 59: 249–306.
Achiba, M. 2003. Learning to Request in a Second Language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Adams, R., A. Nuevo, and T. Egi. 2011. ‘Explicit and implicit feedback, modified output, and SLA: does explicit and implicit feedback promote learning and learner-learner interactions?’ Modern Language Journal 95, Supplementary Issue: 42–63.
Akakura, M. 2012. ‘Evaluating the effectiveness of explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge’. Language Teaching Research 16: 8–37.
Aljaafreh, A. and J. Lantolf. 1994. ‘Negative feedback as regulation and second language learning in the Zone of Proximal Development’. The Modern Language Journal 78: 465–83.
Allwright, R. 1984. ‘The importance of interaction in classroom language learning’. Applied Linguistics 5: 156–71.
Alvarez, E. 2006. ‘Rate and route of acquisition in EFL narrative development at different ages’ in Muñoz, C. (ed.): Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Andersen, R. 1983. ‘Transfer to somewhere’ in Gass, S. and L. Selinker (eds.): Language Transfer in Language Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Andersen, R. 1984. ‘The one-to-one principle of interlanguage construction’. Language Learning 34: 77–95.
Andersen, R. 1991. ‘Developmental sequences: the emergence of aspect marking in second language acquisition’ in Ferguson, C. and T. Huebner (eds.): Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theories. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Anderson, J. 1980. Cognitive Psychology and its Implications. San Francisco: Freeman.
Anderson, J. 1993. Rules of the Mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. 2005. Cognitive Psychology and its Implications. 6th edn. New York: Worth Publishers.
Armstrong, N. 2002. ‘Variable deletion of French ne: a cross-stylistic perspective’. Language Sciences 24: 153–73.
Arthur, B., M. Weiner, J. Culver, L. Young, and D. Thomas. 1980. ‘The register of impersonal discourse to foreigners: verbal adjustments to foreign accent’ in Larsen-Freeman, D. (ed.): Discourse Analysis in Second Language Research. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Ashby, W. 1981. ‘The loss of negative particle ne in French: a syntactic change in process’. Language 57: 674–87.
Asher, J. 1977. Learning Another Language Through Actions: The Complete Teachers’ Guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Publications.
Aston, G. 1986. ‘Trouble-shooting in interaction with learners: the more the merrier?’ Applied Linguistics 7: 128–43.
Atkinson, D. 2002. ‘Toward a sociocognitive approach to second language acquisition’. The Modern Language Journal 86: 525–45.
Atkinson, D. (ed.). 2011a. Alternative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition. London: Routledge.
Atkinson, D. 2011b. ‘Introduction: cognitivism and second language acquisition’ in Atkinson, D. (ed.).
Atkinson, D. 2011c. ‘A sociocognitive approach to second language acquisition: how mind, body and world work together in learning’ in Atkinson, D. (ed.).
Atkinson, D., E. Churchill, T. Nishino, and H. Okada. 2007. ‘Alignment and interaction in a sociocognitive approach to second language acquisition’. Modern Language Journal 91: 169–88.
Baddeley, A. 2003. ‘Working memory and language: an overview’. Journal of Communication Disorders 36: 189–208.
Bailey, K. 1983. ‘Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning: looking at and through the diary studies’ in Seliger, H. and M. Long (eds.): Classroom-oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Bailey, N., C. Madden, and S. Krashen. 1974. ‘Is there a “natural sequence” in adult second language learning?’ Language Learning 21: 235–43.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 1995. ‘The interaction of pedagogy and natural sequences in the acquisition of tense and aspect’ in Eckman, F. et al. (eds.): 151–168. Second language Acquisition Theory and Pedagogy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 2000. ‘Tense and aspect in second language acquisition: form, meaning and use’. Language Learning Monograph Series. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 2006. ‘On the role of formulas in the acquisition of L2 pragmatics’ in Bardovi-Harlig, K, C. Félix-Brasdefer, and A. Omar (eds.): Pragmatics and Language Learning 11. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. and Z. Dörnyei. 1998. ‘Do language learners recognize pragmatic violations? Pragmatic vs. grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning’. TESOL Quarterly 32: 233–59.
Batstone, R. 2010. ‘Issues and options in sociocognition’ in Batstone, R. (ed.): Sociocognitive Perspectives on Language Use and Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bayley, R. 1996. ‘Competing constraints on variation in the speech of adult Chinese learners of English’ in Bayley, R. and D. Preston (eds.): Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bayley, R. 2005. ‘Second language acquisition and sociolinguistic variation’. Intercultural Communication Studies XIV: 1–14.
Beckner, C., R. Blythe, J. Bybee, M. Chistiansen, W. Croft, N. Ellis, J. Holland, J. Ke, D. Larsen-Freeman, and T. Schoenmann. 2009. ‘Language is a complex adaptive system: position paper’. Language Learning 59: 1–26.
Beebe, L. 1980. ‘Sociolinguistic variation and style-shifting in second language acquisition’. Language Learning 30: 433–47.
Bell, H. 2009. ‘The messy little details: a longitudinal case study of the emerging lexicon’ in Fitzpatrick, T. and A. Barfield (eds.): Lexical Processing in Second Language Learners. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Benati, A. 2004. ‘The effects of structured input activities and explicit information on the acquisition of Italian future tense’ in VanPatten, B. (ed.): Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Commentary. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Berdan, R. 1996. ‘Disentangling language acquisition from language variation’ in Bayley, R. and D. Preston (eds.): Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bialystok, E. and K
. Hakuta. 1999. ‘Confounded age: linguistic and cognitive factors in age differences for second language acquisition’ in Birdsong, D. (ed.): Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bickerton, D. 1975. Dynamics of a Creole System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bickerton, D. 1981. ‘Discussion of “Two perspectives on pidginization as second language acquisition”‘ in Andersen, R. (ed.): New Dimensions in Second Language Acquisition Research. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Birdsong, D. 1992. ‘Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition’. Language 68: 706–55.
Birdsong, D. 2006. ‘Age and second language acquisition and processing: a selective overview’ in Gullberg, M. and P. Indefrey (eds.): The Cognitive Neuroscience of Second Language Acquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Bley-Vroman, R. 1983. ‘The comparative fallacy in interlanguage studies: the case of systematicity’. Language Learning 33: 1–17.
Block, D. 2003. The Social Turn in Second Language Acquisition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Block, D. 2006. Multilingual Identities in a Global City. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Block, D. 2007. ‘“Socializing” second language acquisition’ in Hua, Z., P. Seedhouse, L. Wei, and V. Cook (eds.): Language Learning and Teaching as Social Interaction. London: Palgrave.
Bongaerts, T. 1999. ‘Ultimate attainment in L2 pronunciation: the case of the very advanced late L2 learners’ in Birdsong, D. (ed.): Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bongartz, C. and M. Schneider. 2003. ‘Linguistic development in social context: a study of two brothers learning German’. The Modern Language Journal 87: 13–37.
Brown, R. 1973. A First Language: the Early Stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Burns, A. 2010. Doing Action Research in English Language Teaching: A Guide for Practitioners. New York: Routledge.
Burt, M. 1975. ‘Error analysis in the adult EFL classroom’. TESOL Quarterly 9: 53–63.
Bygate, M. 2001. ‘Effects of task repetition on the structure and control of oral language’ in Bygate, M., P. Skehan, and M. Swain (eds.): Researching Pedagogic Tasks, Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing. Harlow: Longman.
Bylund, E., N. Abrahamsson, and K. Hystenstam. 2012. ‘Does first language maintenance hamper nativelikeness in a second language? A study of ultimate attainment in early bilinguals’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 34: 215–41.
Callies, M. 2013. ‘Markedness’ in Robinson, P. (ed.): The Routledge Encyclopedia of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 406–9). London: Routledge.
Canale, M. 1983. ‘From communicative competence to language pedagogy’ in Richards, J. and R. Schmidt (eds.): Language and Communication. London: Longman.
Cancino, H., E. Rosansky, and J. Schumann. 1978. ‘The acquisition of English negatives and interrogatives by native Spanish speakers’ in Hatch, E. (ed.): Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Candlin, C. 1987. ‘Towards task-based language learning’ in Candlin, C. and D. Murphy (eds.): Language Learning Tasks. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall International.
Carroll, J. 1965. ‘The prediction of success in foreign language training’ in Glaser, R. (ed.): Training, Research, and Education. New York: Wiley.
Carroll, J. 1981. ‘Twenty-five years in foreign language aptitude’ in Diller, K. (ed.): Individual Differences and Universals in Language Learning Aptitude. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Carroll, J. 1990. ‘Cognitive abilities in foreign language aptitude: then and now’ in Parry, T. and C. Stansfield (eds.): Language Aptitude Reconsidered. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Carroll, J. and S. Sapon. 1959. Modern Language Aptitude Test—Form A. New York: The Psychological Corporation.
Cenoz, J., B. Hufeisen, and U. Jessner. 2001. Cross-linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cenoz, J. and U. Jessner. 2000. The English in Europe: the Acquisition of a Third Language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Chaudron, C. 1983. ‘Foreigner talk in the classroom—an aid to learning?’ in Seliger, H. and M. Long (eds.): Classroom-Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Chomsky, N. 1959. ‘Review of Verbal Behavior by B. F. Skinner’. Language 35: 26–58.
Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Chomsky, N. 1981. ‘Principles and parameters in syntactic theory’ in Hornstein, N. and D. Lightfoot (eds.): Explanation in Linguistics: The Logical Problem of Language Acquisition. London: Longman.
Chomsky, N. 1986. Barriers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Clement, R. 1986. ‘Second language proficiency and acculturation: an investigation of the effects of language status and individual characteristics’. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 5: 271–90.
Cochrane, R. 1980. ‘The acquisition of /r/ and /l/ by Japanese children and adults learning English as a second language’. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 1: 331–60.
Cohen, A. and J. Chi. 2001. ‘Language strategy use survey’. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of Minnesota. http://www.carla.umn.edu/about/profiles/Cohen.
Cook, V. 1991. ‘The poverty of stimulus argument and multicompetence’. Second Language Research 7: 103–17.
Cook, V. 2000. ‘Is transfer the right word?’ Paper presented at the 7th International Pragmatics Conference, July 2000. Budapest.
Cook, V. 2003. ‘Changing the first language in the L2 user’s mind: Introduction to L2 effects on the L1’. http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Papers/EffectsIntro.htm
Coppetiers, R. 1987. ‘Competence differences between native and near-native speakers’. Language 63: 544–73.
Corder, S. P. 1967. ‘The significance of learners’ errors’. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5: 161–9.
Corder, S. P. 1983. ‘A role for the mother tongue’ in Gass, S. and L. Selinker (eds.): Language Transfer in Language Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Coughlan, P. and P. Duff. 1994. ‘Same task, different activities: analysis of a SLA task from an activity theory perspective’ in Lantolf, J. and G. Appel (eds.): Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Crookes, G. and R. Schmidt. 1991. ‘Language learning motivation: reopening the research agenda’. Language Learning 41: 469–512.
Curtiss, S. (ed.). 1977. Genie: Psycholinguistic Study of a Modern-day ‘Wild Child’. London: Academic Press.
Czinglar, C. 2012. ‘The effect of age of acquisition on L1 transfer from Russian to L2 German’. http://www.fcsh.unl.pt/clunl/pl2/wcil2/pdfs/Christine%20Czinglar.pdf
de Bot, K. and D. Larsen-Freeman. 2011. ‘Researching second language development from a Dynamic Systems Theory perspective’ in Verspoor, M., K. de Bot, and W. Lowie (eds.): A Dynamic Approach to Second Language Development. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
de Bot, K., W. Lowie, and M. Verspoor. 2007. ‘A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition’. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10: 7–21.
de Graaff, R. 1997. Differential Effects of Explicit Instruction on Second Language Acquisition. Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics.
de la Fuente, M. 2002. ‘Negotiation and oral acquisition of L2 vocabulary: the roles of input and output in the receptive and productive acquisition of words’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24: 81–112.
de la Fuente, M. 2003. ‘Is SLA interactionist theory relevant to CALL? A study on the effects of computer-mediated interaction in L2 vocabulary acquisition’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 16: 47–81.
de Swart, H. 2006. ‘Negation: an early “window” on language genesis’. igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/ai/2008-0317-200901/preprint055
de Villiers, J. and P. de Villiers. 1973. �
��A cross-sectional study of the development of grammatical morphemes in child speech’. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 1: 299–310.
Deci, E. and M. Ryan. (eds.). 1985. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum.
Dehaene, S. 1999. ‘Fitting two languages into one brain’. Brain 122: 2207–08.
DeKeyser, R. 1998. ‘Beyond focus on form: cognitive perspectives on learning and practicing second language grammar’ in Doughty, C. and J. Williams (eds.): Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
DeKeyser, R. 2000. ‘The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22: 499–533.
DeKeyser, R. 2003. ‘Implicit and explicit learning’ in Doughty, C. and M. Long (eds.): Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
DeKeyser, R. 2007. ‘Introduction: situating the concept of practice’ in DeKeyser, R (ed.): Practice in a Second Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
DeKeyser, R. 2009. ‘Cognitive-psychological processes in second language learning’ in Long, M. and C. Doughty (eds.): Handbook of Second Language Teaching. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
DeKeyser, R. and G. Prieto Botana. 2015. ‘The effectiveness of processing instruction in L2 grammar acquisition: a narrative review’. Applied Linguistics 36(3).
Dewaele, J. 2004. ‘Retention or omission of the ne in advanced French interlanguage: the variable effect of extralinguistic factors’. Journal of Sociolinguistics 8: 433–50.
Dewaele, J. and V. Regan. 2002. ‘Maîtreser la norme sociolinguistique en interlanguage francaise: le cas de l’omission variable de ne’. Journal of French Language Studies 12: 123–48.
Dickerson, L. 1975. ‘The learner’s interlanguage as a system of variable rules’. TESOL Quarterly 9: 401–7.
Dietrich, R., W. Klein, and C. Noyau (eds.). 1995. The Acquisition of Temporality in a Second Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.