70. Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 173–4.
71. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 185; also Zheng, Zheng He vs. Ge Lun-bu.
14. Lions, Deer and Hunting Dogs
1. Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Complete Yule–Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 272–4.
2. K. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1985), pp. 176, 194; G. Spencer, The Politics of Expansion: the Chola Conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya (Madras, 1983); D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Ohio, 2009), pp. 85, 87.
3. O. W. Wolters, The Fall of Śrīvijaya in Malay History (London, 1970), pp. 42–3, 48; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 96–100, 117–18.
4. C. C. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, or ‘Malay Annals’ (2nd edn, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, 1970), p. 36.
5. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, pp. 219–22.
6. D. Garnier, Ayutthaya: Venice of the East (Bangkok, 2004), p. 23.
7. Ibid., p. 39; C. Baker and P. Phongpaichit, A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World (Cambridge, 2017), pp. 55–7; C. Kasetsiri, The Rise of Ayudhya: a History of Siam in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), pp. 57–64; C. Kasetsiri, ‘Origins of a Capital and Seaport: the Early Settlement of Ayutthaya and Its East Asian Trade’, in K. Breazeale, ed., From Japan to Arabia: Ayutthaya’s Maritime Relations with Asia (Bangkok, 1999), pp. 55–79.
8. Garnier, Ayutthaya, pp. 39, 41, 49.
9. Ibid., p. 18; K. Breazeale, ‘Thai Maritime Trade and the Ministry Responsible’, in Breazeale, ed., From Japan to Arabia, pp. 20–21.
10. Kasetsiri, ‘Origins of a Capital’, pp. 65, 68; Baker and Phongpaichit, History of Ayutthaya, pp. 51–5.
11. Garnier, Ayutthaya, pp. 13–18; Kasetsiri, ‘Origins of a Capital’, pp. 64–71; D. Wyatt, ‘Ayutthaya, 1409–24: Internal Politics and International Relations’, in Breazeale, ed., From Japan to Arabia, pp. 80–88.
12. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 106.
13. Ibid., pp. 107–9, 122.
14. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 211; Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, pp. 44–6.
15. Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, p. 78; F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chï (St Petersburg, 1911), pp. 75–8, 82–5.
16. P. Rawson, The Art of Southeast Asia (London, 1967), pp. 254–72.
17. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 234.
18. Ibid., pp. 235–7.
19. Ibid., pp. 238–41, 245–7.
20. Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, p. 66.
21. E. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405–1433 (New York, 2007), p. 63.
22. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, pp. 253, 255.
23. V. Glendinning, Raffles and the Golden Opportunity (London, 2012), pp. 217–19; M. R. Frost and Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Singapore: a Biography (Singapore and Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 40–45; J. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800 (Singapore, 2013), pp. 154–5.
24. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. x–xi; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 146–7; K. C. Guan, D. Heng and T. T. Yong, Singapore: a 700-Year History (National Archives, Singapore, 2009), pp. 11–15.
25. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 2.
26. Ibid., p. 14; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 147–8.
27. Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, pp. 128–35.
28. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 18.
29. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 150.
30. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. 19–20; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 150–51.
31. Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, p. 25; other interpretations of the name include ‘stop-over place’ and ‘gateway’.
32. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 21.
33. Ibid., pp. 22–3.
34. Ibid., p. 40; Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, p. 26; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 152–3.
35. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 41; Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, pp. 26, 28.
36. Wang Du-yuan in Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 174–5, 177–8; Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, pp. 27–8, 47.
37. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 181–2, 185.
38. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 40–41.
39. Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, pp. 113, 120–21; Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 42–3.
40. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. 20–21; Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, p. 10.
41. Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, pp. 28–9.
42. Ibid., p. 10, with illustration.
43. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. 26–7; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 12–16, fig. 0.17
44. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 26.
45. Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, pp. 33–52.
46. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 222–40.
47. Ibid., pp. 295–310.
48. Ibid., pp. 167–8; Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, p. 131; Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 42.
49. Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, pp. 77–153.
50. Armando Cortesão, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, p. 233; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 156–62.
51. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. 241–2; Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, p. 108–9.
52. Cortesão, transl. and ed., Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires, vol. 2, p. 232.
53. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 42; cf. Cortesão, transl. and ed., Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires, vol. 2, pp. 236–7.
54. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 400.
55. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 127.
56. Ibid., pp. 43–4.
57. Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, p. 240 n. 42; Cortesão, transl. and ed., Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires, vol. 2, p. 241.
58. Wolters, Fall of Śrīvijaya, pp. 160–63.
59. D. Freeman, The Straits of Malacca: Gateway or Gauntlet? (Montreal, 2003).
60. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 42.
61. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 80.
62. Ibid., p. 81.
63. Kamis bin Hj. Abbas, ed., Melaka Dalam Dunia Maritim – Melaka in the Maritime World (Melaka, 2004), p. 23; Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. 56, 58–9.
64. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, pp. 150–51.
65. Ibid., pp. 44–9.
66. F. Fernández-Armesto, 1492: the Year Our World Began (London, 2010), pp. 226–7, 266, 268.
67. Brown, ed., Sĕjarah Mĕlayu, p. 151; Camoens, The Lusiads, transl. W. Atkinson (Harmondsworth, 1952), p. 242.
PART THREE
THE YOUNG OCEAN: THE ATLANTIC, 22,000 BC–AD 1500
15. Living on the Edge
1. B. Bailyn, Atlantic History: Concept and Contours (Cambridge, Mass., 2005).
2. B. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean: the Atlantic and Its Peoples 8000 BC–AD 1500 (Oxford, 2001); see also his Europe between the Oceans, Themes and Variations: 9000 BC–AD 1000 (New Haven, 2008), Britain Begins (Oxford, 2012) and On the Ocean: the Mediterranean and the Atlantic from Prehistory to AD 1500 (Oxford, 2017), and ‘Atlantic Sea-Ways’, Revista de Guimarães, special vol. 1 (Guimarães, 1999), pp. 93–105; E. G. Bowen, Britain and the Western Seaways (London, 1972).
3. J. Henderson, The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium BC (London, 2007), pp. 11–22, 27–34.
4. Ibid., p. 31, fig. 2.1.
5. Ibid., pp. 30–31.
6. Ibid., pp. 10–11; B. Quinn, The Atlantean Irish: Ireland’s Oriental and Maritime Heritage (Dublin, 2005), which overstates its case.
7. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 36.
8. V. Gaffney, K. Thomson and S. Fitch, Mapping Doggerland: the Mesolithic Landscapes of the Southern North Sea (Oxford, 2007).
> 9. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, p. 110.
10. A. Saville, ‘Orkney and Scotland before the Neolithic period’, in A. Ritchie, ed., Neolithic Orkney in Its European Context (McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge, 2000), pp. 95–8.
11. C. Finlayson, The Humans Who Went Extinct: Why Neanderthals Died Out and We Survived (Oxford, 2009); D. Papagianni and M. Morse, The Neanderthals Rediscovered: How Modern Science is Rewriting Their Story (London, 2013), pp. 174–7.
12. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, pp. 109, 115.
13. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 52.
14. P. Mellars et al., Excavations on Oronsay: Prehistoric Human Ecology on a Small Island (Edinburgh, 1987); Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, pp. 124–5, and plate 4.11.
15. G. Marchand, ‘Le Mésolithique final en Bretagne: une combinaison des faits archéologiques’, in S. J. de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity in Atlantic Europe Mainly during the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age: Papers Presented at the IV Atlantic Colloquium, Ghent, 1975 (Bruges, 1976), pp. 67–86; C. Dupont and Y. Gruet, ‘Malacofaune et crustacés marins des amas coquilliers mésolithiques de Beg-an-Dorchenn (Plomeur, Finistère) et de Beg-er-Vil (Quiberon, Morbihan),’ in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 139–61; Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, p. 417.
16. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, pp. 120–22.
17. M. Ruiz-Gálvez Priego, La Europa atlántica en la Edad del Bronce (Barcelona, 1998), pp. 126–7.
18. C. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations’, in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 200, 218.
19. L. Laporte, ‘Néolithisations de la façade atlantique du Centre-Ouest et de l’Ouest de la France’, in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 99–125.
20. R. Schulting, ‘Comme la mer qui se retire: les changements dans l’exploitation des ressources marines du Mésolithique au Néolithique en Bretagne’, in de Laet, Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 163–88; Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, p. 119.
21. A. Sheridan, ‘Les éléments d’origine bretonne autour de 4000 av. J.-C. en Écosse: témoignages d’alliance, d’influence, de déplacement, ou quoi d’autre?’, in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 25–37; N. Milner and P. Woodman, ‘Combler les lacunes … L’événement le plus étudié, le mieux daté et le moins compris du Flandrien’, in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 39–46.
22. Bowen, Britain and the Western Seaways, pp. 19–21.
23. J. Briard, ‘Acculturations néolithiques et campaniformes dans les tumulus armoricains’, in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 34–44.
24. H. N. Savory, ‘The Role of Iberian Communal Tombs in Mediterranean and Atlantic Prehistory’, in V. Markotić, Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean: Studies Presented in Honour of Hugh Hencken (Warminster, 1977), pp. 161–80.
25. A. A. Rodríguez Casal, ‘An Introduction to the Atlantic Megalithic Complex’, in A. A. Rodríguez Casal, ed., Le Mégalithisme atlantique – the Atlantic Megaliths: Actes du XIVème Congrès UISPP, Université de Liège, Belgique, 2–8 septembre 2001 (BAR Interenational series, no. 1521, Oxford, 2006), p. 1.
26. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations’, pp. 198–9; J. L’Helgouac’h, ‘Les premiers monuments mégalithiques de l’Ouest de la France’, in A. A. Rodríguez Casal, ed., O Neolítico atlántico e as orixes do Megalitismo: actas do coloquio internacional (Santiago de Compostela, 1–6 de abril de 1996) (Cursos e congresos da Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, no. 101, Santiago de Compostela, 1996), p. 199.
27. Map in Bowen, Britain and the Western Seaways, p. 33; Rodríguez Casal, ‘Introduction’, p. 2.
28. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations’, p. 199.
29. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations’, p. 204; Rodríguez Casal, ‘Introduction’, p. 2.
30. A. Ritchie, ‘The First Settlers’, in C. Renfrew, ed., The Prehistory of Orkney BC 4000–1000 AD (2nd edn, Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 36–9; A. Ritchie, Prehistoric Orkney (London, 1995), p. 21.
31. D. V. Clarke and N. Sharples, ‘Settlements and Subsistence in the Third Millennium BC’, in Renfrew, ed., Prehistory of Orkney, p. 77.
32. Ibid., pp. 58–68.
33. Ritchie, ‘First Settlers’, pp. 41–50; Ritchie, Prehistoric Orkney, p. 22.
34. H. Pálsson and P. Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga: the History of the Earls of Orkney (Harmondsworth, 1981), p. 188, cap. 93.
35. A. Henshall, ‘The Chambered Cairns’, in Renfrew, ed., Prehistory of Orkney, pp. 96–8.
36. C. Renfrew, ‘The Auld Hoose Spaeks: Society and Life in Stone Age Orkney’, in A. Ritchie, ed., Neolithic Orkney in Its European Context (McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge, 2000), pp. 1–20; A. Shepherd, ‘Skara Brae: Expressing Identity in a Neolithic Community’, in Ritchie, ed., Neolithic Orkney, pp. 139–58.
37. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 10–12.
38. M. Fernández-Miranda, ‘Aspects of Talayotic Culture’, in M. Balmuth, A. Gilman and L. Prados-Torreira, eds., Encounters and Transformations: the Archaeology of Iberia in Transition (Sheffield, 1997), pp. 59–68.
39. G. Daniel, The Megalith Builders of Western Europe (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), pp. 26–8, 75–7, to cite just one work by this author; Savory, ‘Role of Iberian Communal Tombs’, pp. 169, 175; Rodríguez Casal, ‘Introduction’, pp. 4–5.
40. Savory, ‘Role of Iberian Communal Tombs’, p. 174; E. Shee Twohig, ‘Megalithic Tombs and Megalithic Art in Atlantic Europe’, in C. Scarre and F. Healy, eds., Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Europe: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of Bristol, April 1992 (Oxford, 1993), pp. 87–99; A. A. Rodríguez Casal, O Megalitismo: a primeira arquitectura monumental de Galicia (Santiago, 1990), pp. 135–41; also G. and V. Leisner, Die Megalithgräber der Iberischen Halbinsel, vol. I: Der Süden (2 vols., Berlin, 1943), and vol. II: Der Westen (3 vols., Berlin, 1965).
41. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations’, pp. 208, 218; and several articles and comments in Rodríguez Casal, ed., O Neolítico atlántico: E. Shee Twohig, ‘Perspectives on the Megaliths of North West Europe’, pp. 117–27; C.-T. Le Roux, ‘Aspects non funéraires du mégalithisme armoricain’, p. 234; C. Tavares da Silva, ‘O Neolítico antigo e a origem do Megalitismo no Sul de Portugal’, pp. 575–85; J. Soares, ‘A transição para as formações sociais neolíticas na costa sudoeste portuguesa’, pp. 587–608.
16. Swords and Ploughshares
1. A. Coffyn, Le Bronze Final Atlantique dans la Péninsule Ibérique (Paris, 1985), p. 113; also p. 112, fig. 53.
2. J. Henderson, The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium BC (London, 2007), p. 58; R. Harrison, Spain at the Dawn of History (London, 1988), p. 40; J. Briard, The Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe: From the Megaliths to the Celts, transl. M. Turton (London, 1979), p. 76.
3. M. Ruíz-Gálvez Priego, ‘The West of Iberia: Meeting Point between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic at the End of the Bronze Age’, in M. Balmuth, A. Gilman and L. Prados-Torreira, eds., Encounters and Transformations: the Archaeology of Iberia in Transition (Sheffield, 1997), pp. 95–120; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, pp. 95–7.
4. M. Ruiz-Gálvez Priego, La Europa atlántica en la Edad del Bronce (Barcelona, 1998), pp. 121–5.
5. M. C. Fernández Castro, Iberia in Prehistory (Oxford, 1995), p. 140; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, p. 200.
6. Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, p. 76.
7. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, p. 17.
8. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 59, fig. 3.1.
9. Ruiz-Gálvez, Europa atlántica, pp. 348–58.
10. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, pp. 140–41, map 22.
11. S. Bowman and S. Needham, ‘The Dunaverney and Little Thetford Flesh-Hooks: History, Technology and Their Position within the Later Bronze Age Atlantic Zone Feasting Complex’, Antiquaries Journal, vol. 87 (2007),
pp. 53–108; Ruiz-Gálvez, Europa atlántica, pp. 281–2, figs. 89–90; Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 63–8; map showing cauldrons, p. 64, fig. 3.5; swords: p. 66, fig. 3.7.
12. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, pp. 48, 82, 84; also pp. 106–7, figs. 48–9, and p. 135, map 18; quotation from p. 142.
13. C. Burgess and B. O’Connor, ‘Iberia, the Atlantic Bronze Age and the Mediterranean’, in S. Celestino, N. Rafel and X.-L. Armada, eds., Contacto cultural entre el Mediterráneo y el Atlántico (siglos XII–VIII ANE): la precolonización a debate (Rome and Madrid, 2008), pp. 41–58; Ruiz-Gálvez, Europa atlántica, p. 206; Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, pp. 143, 181–2, 205–11; but cf. Ruiz-Gálvez, ‘West of Iberia’, p. 11 (arguing against a shipwreck).
14. H. Hencken, ‘Carp’s Tongue Swords in Spain, France and Italy’, Zephyrus, vol. 7 (1956), pp. 125–78.
15. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 69–71; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, p. 202.
16. J. Briard, ‘Relations between Brittany and Great Britain during the Bronze Age’, in C. Scarre and F. Healy, eds., Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Europe: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of Bristol, April 1992 (Oxford, 1993), pp. 183–90.
17. K. Muckleroy, ‘Middle Bronze Age Trade between Britain and Europe: a Maritime Perspective’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, vol. 47 (1981), pp. 275–97; Ruiz-Gálvez, Europa atlántica, p. 141.
18. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 80, 308 n. 11; O. Crumlin-Pedersen, Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain: a Personal Account (Roskilde, 2010), pp. 56–7.
19. Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, pp. 205–6.
20. Ibid., pp. 196–7.
21. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 93–5 and fig. 3.19; Ruiz-Gálvez, Europa atlántica, p. 207; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, pp. 206–8.
22. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 86–8.
23. Ruiz-Gálvez, Europa atlántica, pp. 348–58; Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 87, 99–116.
24. Ruiz-Gálvez, Europa atlántica, pp. 83–6, and fig. 17; Muckleroy, ‘Middle Bronze Age Trade’, pp. 279–80.
25. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, plate xiv.
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