38. O. Crumlin-Pedersen, ‘To be or not to be a cog: the Bremen Cog in Perspective’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol. 29 (2000), pp. 230–46.
39. B. Fagan, Fish on Friday: Feasting, Fasting, and the Discovery of the New World (New York, 2007), pp. 51–6.
40. J. van Houtte, An Economic History of the Low Countries 800–1800 (London, 1977), p. 90.
41. Saxo Grammaticus (c.1150–c.1220), cited by J. Gade, The Hanseatic Control of Norwegian Commerce during the Late Middle Ages (Leiden, 1951), p. 17; P. Holm, ‘Commercial Sea Fisheries in the Baltic Region c.AD 1000–1600’, in J. Barrett and D. Orton, eds., Cod and Herring: the Archaeology and History of Medieval Sea Fishing (Oxford, 2016), pp. 13–22.
42. Gade, Hanseatic Control, pp. 17–18.
43. Schildhauer et al., Die Hanse, pp. 99–100.
44. A. R. Bridbury, England and the Salt Trade in the Later Middle Ages (Oxford, 1955), pp. 94–8.
45. A. de Oliveira Marques, Hansa e Portugal na Idade Média (Lisbon, 1993).
23. Stockfish and Spices
1. H. Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: an Analysis of Systems Change (Princeton, 1994), pp. 109–29; T. Brady, Turning Swiss: Cities and Empire, 1450–1550 (Cambridge, 1985).
2. P. Dollinger, The German Hansa (London, 1970), pp. 62–3.
3. Ibid., pp. 88–93.
4. Ibid., pp. ix–x.
5. Ibid., p. 91.
6. V. Etting, Queen Margarete, 1353–1412, and the Founding of the Nordic Union (Leiden, 2004).
7. M. Puhle, Die Vitalienbrüder: Klaus Störtebeker und die Seeräuber der Hanse (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1992).
8. Dollinger, German Hansa, p. 96.
9. W. Stieda, Hildebrand Veckinchusen: Briefwechsel eines deutschen Kaufmanns im 15. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1921); M. Lesnikov, Die Handelsbücher des Hansischen Kaufmannes Veckinchusen (Berlin, 1973); M. Lesnikov and W. Stark, Die Handelsbücher des Hildebrand Veckinchusen (Cologne, 2013); A. Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin des Hansekaufmanns Hildebrand Veckinchusen im späten Mittelalter: Untersuchung des Briefwechsels (1417–1428) (Hamburg, 2014), pp. 13, 15, 27, 32–3; G. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse: eine heimliche Supermacht (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2011), pp. 222, 233 (illustrating the chest full of pepper).
10. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 223.
11. Ibid., p. 227; Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin, p. 25.
12. A. Vandewalle, Hanze@M€dici: Bruges, Crossroads of European Cultures (Oostkamp, 2002), pp. 48–9 and accompanying map.
13. J. van Houtte, Bruges: essai d’histoire urbaine (Brussels, 1967), p. 90.
14. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, pp. 231–2.
15. Van Houtte, Bruges, pp. 41, 57–8; J. Murray, Bruges, Cradle of Capitalism, 1280–1390 (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 244–5.
16. J. and F. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen: the Commercial Revolution, 1000–1500 (London, 1972), pp. 199–202, 205.
17. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 229.
18. J. Martin, Treasure in the Land of Darkness: the Fur Trade and Its Significance for Medieval Russia (Cambridge, 1986).
19. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 234.
20. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, p. 206.
21. P. Lantschner, The Logic of Political Conflict in Medieval Cities: Italy and the Southern Low Countries, 1370–1440 (Oxford, 2015).
22. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 206–8, 211.
23. Ibid., p. 209; Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, pp. 235–6; Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin, pp. 33–40.
24. Dollinger, German Hansa, p. 216.
25. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 210–11; Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 239.
26. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, p. 214; Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, pp. 240–42; Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin, pp. 69–95.
27. In modern German: Gott erbarme, daß es mit Dir so gekommen ist: Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin, p. 13.
28. Dollinger, German Hansa, pp. 165–6, 173–6; Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 209–14.
29. K. Helle, ‘The Emergence of the Town of Bergen in the Light of the Latest Research Results’, in A. Graßmann, ed., Das Hansische Kontor zu Bergen und die Lübecker Bergenfahrer – International Workshop Lübeck 2003 (Lübeck, 2005), pp. 12–27; also A. Nedkvitne, The German Hansa and Bergen 1100–1600 (Cologne, 2013).
30. A. Liestol, ‘The Runes from Bergen: Voices from the Middle Ages’, Minnesota History, vol. 40 (1966), part 2, pp. 49–58.
31. Cited from the Sverre Saga, ch. 104, in J. Gade, The Hanseatic Control of Norwegian Commerce during the Late Middle Ages (Leiden, 1951), pp. 30–31.
32. Text in Gade, Hanseatic Control, pp. 38–41.
33. Ibid., p. 30 n. 1.
34. Ibid., p. 55.
35. G. A. Ersland, ‘Was the Kontor in Bergen a Topographically Closed Entity?’, in Graßmann, ed., Das Hansische Kontor zu Bergen, pp. 41–57; Gade, Hanseatic Control, p. 51.
36. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 298–9.
37. Ersland, ‘Was the Kontor?’, pp. 47, 53.
38. Gade, Hanseatic Control, pp. 74–7, 80–81.
24. The English Challenge
1. P. D. A. Harvey, ‘The English Inflation of 1180–1220’, Past and Present, no. 61 (1973), pp. 26–7.
2. T. H. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse 1157–1611: a Study of Their Trade and Diplomacy (Cambridge, 1991), p. 15; T. H. Lloyd, Alien Merchants in England in the High Middle Ages (Brighton, 1982), pp. 128–9.
3. P. Richards, ‘The Hinterland and Overseas Trade of King’s Lynn 1205–1537: an Introduction’, in K. Friedland and P. Richards, eds., Essays in Hanseatic History: the King’s Lynn Symposium 1998 (Dereham, Norfolk, 2005), pp. 10–21.
4. Lloyd, Alien Merchants, pp. 130–31.
5. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 23–31.
6. G. Cushway, Edward III and the War at Sea, 1327–1377 (Woodbridge, 2011).
7. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 73, 89; S. Jenks, ‘Lynn and the Hanse: Trade and Relations in the Middle Ages’, in Friedland and Richards, eds., Essays in Hanseatic History, pp. 101–3.
8. E. Carus-Wilson, ‘Trends in the Export of English Woollens in the Fourteenth Century’, in E. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers: Collected Studies (2nd edn, London, 1967), pp. 239–64; J. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, and Emissaries: the Commercial and Political Interaction of England and the German Hanse 1450–1510 (Toronto, 1995), p. 5.
9. Richards, ‘Hinterland and Overseas Trade’, p. 19; W. Stark, ‘English Merchants in Danzig’, in Friedland and Richards, eds., Essays in Hanseatic History, pp. 64–6; Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, p. 10.
10. E. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades (2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 156–7; Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 131–2; Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 7–9.
11. M. Burleigh, Prussian Society and the German Order: an Aristocratic Corporation in Crisis c.1410–1466 (Cambridge, 1984); Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 178–9; M. M. Postan, ‘The Economic and Political Relations of England and the Hanse from 1400 to 1475’, in M. M. Postan and E. Power, eds., Studies in English Trade in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1933), pp. 91–153; S. Jenks, England, die Hanse und Preußen: Handel und Diplomatie 1377–1474 (3 vols., Cologne, 1992).
12. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 66–74.
13. E. Carus-Wilson, ‘The Overseas Trade of Bristol in the Fifteenth Century’, in Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 1–97; also Carus-Wilson, ‘The Iceland Venture’, ibid., pp. 98–142.
14. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 144–51.
15. Cited in Jenks, ‘Lynn and the Hanse’, p. 103; Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 74, 109–10.
16. D. Pifarré Torres, El comerç internacional de Barcelona i el Mar del Nord (Bruges) a Finals del segle XIV (Montserrat, 2002); J. Hinojosa Montalvo, De Valencia a Flandes: la nave d
ella frutta (Valencia, 2007).
17. A. Ruddock, Italian Merchants and Shipping in Southampton, 1270–1600 (Southampton, 1951); D. Abulafia, ‘Cittadino e denizen: mercanti mediterranei a Southampton e a Londra’, in M. del Treppo, ed., Sistema di rapporti ed élites economiche in Europa (secoli XII–XVII) (Naples, 1994), pp. 273–91, repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters, Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000), essay VII.
18. C. Platt, Medieval Southampton: the Port and the Trading Community, A.D. 1000–1600 (London, 1973), pp. 262–3.
19. B. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth-Century Depression (New Haven, 1976), pp. 31–7; P. Strohm, ‘Trade, Treason and the Murder of Janus Imperial’, Journal of British Studies, vol. 35 (1996), pp. 1–23.
20. Abulafia, ‘Cittadino e denizen’, pp. 278–9; Platt, Medieval Southampton, pp. 229–30; Ruddock, Italian Merchants, pp. 183–5.
21. Lloyd, Alien Merchants, p. 163.
22. W. Childs, Anglo-Castilian Trade in the Later Middle Ages (Manchester, 1978); T. Ruiz, ‘Castilian Merchants in England, 1248–1350’, in W. C. Jordan, B. McNab and T. Ruiz, eds., Order and Innovation in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of Joseph R. Strayer (Princeton, 1976), pp. 173–85; Lloyd, Alien Merchants, pp. 164–5.
23. E. Ferreira Priegue, Galicia en el comercio marítimo medieval (Santiago de Compostela, 1988).
24. Childs, Anglo-Castilian Trade, pp. 227–30.
25. G. Warner, ed., The Libelle of Englyshe Polycye: a Poem on the Use of Sea-Power, 1436 (Oxford, 1926), p. 4.
26. V. Kostić, Dubrovnik i Engleska, 1300–1650 (Belgrade, 1975), pp. 113, 572, 576.
27. M. Pratt, Winchelsea: the Tale of a Medieval Town (Bexhill-on-Sea, 2005), pp. 41–50.
28. Ibid., p. 131.
29. Ibid., pp. 95–8, 112.
30. Ibid., p. 78.
31. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 2.
32. T. O’Neill, Merchants and Mariners in Medieval Ireland (Dublin, 1987), pp. 29, 67–8, 108; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 13–28.
33. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 5–11.
34. A. Crawford, Bristol and the Wine Trade (Bristol, 1984); M. K. James, Studies in the Medieval Wine Trade (Oxford, 1971).
35. J. Bernard, Navires et gens de mer à Bordeaux (vers 1400–vers 1500) (3 vols., Paris, 1968); Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 32–6.
36. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 43.
37. M. Barkham, ‘The Offshore and Distant-Water Fisheries of the Spanish Basques, c.1500–1650’, in D. Starkey, J. Þór and I. Heidbrink, eds., A History of the North Atlantic Fisheries, vol. 1: From Early Times to the mid-Nineteenth Century (Bremerhaven, 2009), pp. 229–49; J. Proulx, ‘The Presence of Basques in Labrador in the 16th Century’, in R. Grenier, M.-A. Bernier and W. Stevens, eds., The Underwater Archaeology of Red Bay: Basque Shipbuilding and Whaling in the 16th Century (5 vols., Ottawa, 2007), vol. 1: Archaeology Underwater: the Project, pp. 25–42.
38. See the twelve first-class essays in E. Jones and R. Stone, eds., The World of the Newport Medieval Ship: Trade, Politics and Shipping in the mid-Fifteenth Century (Cardiff, 2018).
39. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 47–9, 53–4, 58–64; I. Sanderson, A History of Whaling (New York, 1993), pp. 136–41.
40. B. Little and J. Sansom, The Story of Bristol from the Middle Ages to Today (3rd edn, Wellington, Somerset, 2003), pp. 14–15; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 80–81.
41. S. Jenks, Robert Sturmy’s Commercial Expedition to the Mediterranean (1457/8) (Bristol, 2006).
42. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 67–8.
43. D. H. Sacks, The Widening Gate: Bristol and the Atlantic Economy, 1450–1700 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991), p. 33; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 70–71.
44. B. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise: Commerce and Economy in the Middle Ages (Columbia, SC, 1981), p. 190.
45. Cited in Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 111, and in Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise, p. 192.
46. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 101, 103–4, 110–13.
47. Ibid., pp. 113, 115, 118–20, 125, 131, 137.
48. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise, p. 193; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 133–42.
49. Cited in D. Quinn, ‘The Argument for the English Discovery of America between 1480 and 1494’, Geographical Journal, vol. 127 (1961), p. 277; for the original text from Archivo General de Simancas, Estado de Castilla, leg. 2, f. 6r–v, see plates between p. 284 and p. 285; J. Williamson, ed., The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery under Henry VII (Cambridge, 1962), pp. 30–31; E. Jones and M. Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery: the Bristol Discovery Voyages 1480–1508 (Bristol, 2016), p. 18.
50. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 19–32.
51. William of Worcester, Itinerarium, ibid., pp. 187–8 (doc. 6).
52. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 19–20, 175 (doc. 1, ii).
53. Ibid., pp. 188–9 (doc. 7, i and ii); Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, pp. 15–17.
54. Quinn, ‘Argument for the English Discovery’, pp. 278–9; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 97 (conflating the two voyages); Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 23–4.
55. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 181–95.
56. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 176 (doc. 1, vi).
57. Ibid., pp. 15, 187 (doc. 5); J. Blake, West Africa: Quest for God and Gold, 1454–1587 (London, 1977), pp. 60–62.
25. Portugal Rising
1. W. Childs, Trade and Shipping in the Medieval West: Portugal, Castile and England (Porto, 2013), p. 139.
2. A. Christys, Vikings in the South: Voyages to Iberia and the Mediterranean (London, 2015), pp. 49–50, 73, 87–8.
3. C. Picard, L’Océan Atlantique musulman de la conquête arabe à l’époque almohade: Navigation et mise en valeur des côtes d’al-Andalus et du Maghreb occidental (Portugal–Espagne–Maroc) (Paris, 1997), pp. 79–80, 112, 118; also his Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe–XIIIe siècle): l’Occident d’al-Andalus sous domination islamique (Paris, 2000).
4. Picard, Océan Atlantique musulman, pp. 112, 361–3, 375, 434–44, 518.
5. Ibid., pp. 39, 42–3, 132–4, 171.
6. C. W. David, ed., De Expugnatione Lyxbonensi: the Conquest of Lisbon (2nd edn, revised by J. Phillips, New York, 2001).
7. Picard, Océan Atlantique musulman, pp. 125, 174, 181, 353, 355–6; Picard, Portugal musulman, pp. 105, 110; S. Lay, The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier (Basingstoke, 2009), pp. 152–3.
8. B. Diffie, Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas before Henry the Navigator (Lincoln, Neb., 1960), pp. 30, 32–3.
9. F. Miranda, Portugal and the Medieval Atlantic: Commercial Diplomacy, Merchants, and Trade, 1143–1488 (Porto, 2012), pp. 2, 72; T. Viula de Faria, The Politics of Anglo-Portuguese Relations and Their Protagonists in the Later Middle Ages (c.1369–c.1449) (D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford, 2012); V. Shillington and A. Wallis Chapman, The Commercial Relations of England and Portugal (London, 1907), pp. 31, 41–5; Childs, Trade and Shipping, pp. 83, 109, 113–14.
10. Miranda, Portugal and the Medieval Atlantic, pp. 65, 161, 183.
11. Cited ibid., p. 64.
12. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 98–112.
13. F. Themudo Barata, Navegação, comércio e relações políticas: os portugueses no Mediterrâneo Ocidental (1385–1466) (Lisbon, 1998); J. Heers, ‘L’Expansion maritime portugaise à la fin du Moyen-ge: la Méditerranée’, Actas do III Colóquio internacional de estudios luso-brasileiros (Lisbon, 1960), vol. 2, pp. 138–47, repr. in J. Heers, Société et économie à Gênes (XIVe–XVe siècles) (London, 1979), essay III; H. Ferhat, Sabta des origi
nes au XIVe siècle (Rabat 1993; repr. with new pagination, Rabat, 2014).
14. E. Ferreira Priegue, Galicia en el comercio marítimo medieval (Santiago de Compostela, 1988); J. Heers, ‘Le Commerce des Basques en Méditerranée au XVe siècle (d’après les archives de Gênes)’, Bulletin Hispanique, vol. 57 (1955), pp. 292–324.
15. F. Fernández-Armesto, ‘Atlantic Exploration before Columbus: the Evidence of Maps’, Renaissance and Modern Studies, vol. 30 (1986), pp. 12–34, repr. in F. Fernández-Armesto, ed., The European Opportunity: an Expanding World (Aldershot, 1995), vol. 2, pp. 278–300.
16. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), p. 34.
17. Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, ‘Purgatorio’, canto 26, verses 133–5; T. Cachey, Le Isole Fortunate: appunti di storia letteraria italiana (Rome, 1995), p. 18.
18. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 49–64.
19. Giovanni Boccaccio, De Canaria, in M. Pastore Stocchi, ‘Il “De Canaria” boccaccesco e un locus deperditus nel “De Insulis” di Domenico Silvestri’, Rinascimento, vol. 10 (1959), pp. 153–6.
20. Boccaccio, De Canaria, p. 155.
21. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 65–7; F. Fernández-Armesto, Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229–1492 (London, 1987), pp. 153–9; A. Rumeu de Armas, El obispado de Telde: misioneros mallorquines y catalanes en el Atlántico (2nd edn, Madrid and Telde, 1986); J. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels: the Church and the non-Christian world, 1250–1500 (Liverpool, 1979).
22. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 42–4.
23. M. Adhikari, ‘Europe’s First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: the Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders’, African Historical Review, vol. 49 (2017), pp. 1–26.
24. Fernández-Armesto, Before Columbus, pp. 158, 167.
25. Ferhat, Sabta, pp. 19–28 (old edn), pp. 17–25 (new edn); L. Miguel Duarte, Ceuta 1415 (Lisbon, 2015), pp. 132–9; A. Unali, Ceuta 1415 (Rome, 2000).
26. D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977).
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