27. Wallis, ‘England’s Search’, p. 461; Vaughan, Arctic, p. 67.
28. Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, p. 20.
29. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 23.
30. Best, True Discourse, in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 23–31; J. McDermott, ed., The Third Voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island 1578 (London, 2001); J. Butman and S. Targett, New World, Inc.: How England’s Merchants Founded America and Launched the British Empire (London, 2018), pp. 127–35.
31. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 25–9.
32. Documents and narratives in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 303–34; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 32–8.
33. Vaughan, Arctic, pp. 65–7; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 41–3; Whitfield, New Found Lands, p. 83 (Baffin’s map of Hudson Bay).
34. Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 192–224.
35. Ibid., p. 205.
36. Wallis, ‘England’s Search’, p. 467.
37. ‘Drake’s Circumnavigation’, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, p. 210; D. Wilson, The World Encompassed: Drake’s Great Voyage 1577–1580 (London, 1977), p. 165.
38. Wallis, ‘England’s Search’, p. 467.
39. ‘The Expedition to Russia’, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 46–7.
40. Jens Munk in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, p. 75; T. Hansen, North West to Hudson Bay: the Life and Times of Jens Munk (London, 1970, abridged from Danish edition of 1965).
41. Vaughan, Arctic, pp. 72–4; Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 65–7; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 55–9.
37. The Rise of the Dutch
1. J. van Houtte, An Economic History of the Low Countries 800–1800 (London, 1977), p. 175; P. Spufford, From Antwerp to London: the Decline of Financial Centres in Europe (Wassenaar, 2005), p. 15; H. van der Wee, The Growth of the Antwerp Market (3 vols., The Hague, 1963); J. Wegg, Antwerp, 1477–1559 (London, 1916), pp. 48–56, 59.
2. W. Blokmans, Metropolen aan de Noordzee: de geschiedenis van Nederland 1100–1560 (Amsterdam, 2010), pp. 580–81; Wegg, Antwerp, pp. 66–8.
3. Blokmans, Metropolen aan de Noordzee, pp. 575, 652.
4. Ibid., pp. 571, 575; Wegg, Antwerp, pp. 60–64.
5. O. Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce: the Institutional Foundations of International Trade in the Low Countries, 1250–1650 (Princeton, 2013), pp. 29–30; Spufford, From Antwerp to London, pp. 13–14.
6. J. Guy, Gresham’s Law (London, 2019). pp. 11–13.
7. J. N. Ball, Merchants and Merchandise: the Expansion of Trade in Europe 1500–1630 (London, 1977), pp. 86–7.
8. Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, p. 176.
9. Spufford, From Antwerp to London, p. 16.
10. Cited in Spufford, From Antwerp to London, p. 17.
11. Ball, Merchants and Merchandise, pp. 87–8; Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce, pp. 55–6; Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, pp. 176, 187.
12. Spufford, From Antwerp to London, p. 18; Blokmans, Metropolen aan de Noordzee, pp. 616–17.
13. Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce, pp. 32–3; Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, pp. 188–9.
14. J. Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806 (Oxford, 1995), p. 307; also S. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: an Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (London, 1987).
15. J. Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade (Oxford, 1989), p. 13.
16. Ibid., pp. 22–4; Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, p. 106.
17. Israel, Dutch Republic, p. 316.
18. Ibid., pp. 18–21.
19. Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, pp. 66–7, 70, 147–8.
20. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 460, 466, 468, 477.
21. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 26–35.
22. Ibid., pp. 38–42.
23. Ball, Merchants and Merchandise, pp. 98–102.
24. J. Evans, Merchant Adventurers: the Voyage of Discovery That Transformed Tudor England (London, 2013), pp. 315–27.
25. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 43–8.
38. Whose Seas?
1. P. Borschberg, ed., Jacques de Coutre’s Singapore and Johore 1594–c.1625 (Singapore, 2015), pp. 64, 66; P. Borschberg, Hugo Grotius, the Portuguese and Free Trade in the East Indies (Singapore, 2011); P. de Sousa Pinto, The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka 1575–1619: Power, Trade and Diplomacy (Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, 2012), pp. 31–3, 107.
2. B. Hayton, The South China Sea: the Struggle for Power in Asia (New Haven and London, 2014).
3. Hugo Grotius, Mare Liberum (Leiden, 1609); quotations are from Richard Hakluyt’s translation, which is reprinted in D. Armitage, ed., The Free Sea (Indianapolis, 2004), pp. 3–62.
4. Armitage, ed., Free Sea, p. 10.
5. Armitage in Free Sea, p. xi; W. Welwod, ‘Of the Community and Propriety of the Seas’, in Armitage, ed., Free Sea, pp. 65–74.
6. Armitage, ed., Free Sea, p. 12.
7. Ibid., p. 13.
8. Ibid., p. 26.
9. Ibid., p. 80, from Grotius’s reply to Welwod.
10. Ibid., p. 32.
11. Armitage in Free Sea, p. xvi.
12. J. Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade (Oxford, 1989), pp. 53–6, and tables 3.3 and 3.4, p. 57.
13. Ibid., p. 61.
14. G. Seibert, ‘São Tomé & Príncipe: the First Plantation Economy in the Tropics’, in R. Law, S. Schwarz and S. Strickrodt, eds., Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa (Woodbridge, 2013), pp. 62, 68, 75.
15. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 63–4; A. de la Fuente, Havana and the Atlantic in the Sixteenth Century (Chapel Hill, 2008), pp. 21, 49.
16. J. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640 (Baltimore, 1993), p. 93.
17. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 67–73; C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800 (London, 1965), pp. 49–54, 105, 109; G. Winius and M. Vink, The Merchant-Warrior Pacified: the VOC (Dutch East India Co.) and Its Changing Political Economy in India (New Delhi and Oxford, 1991), pp. 9–12.
18. Israel, Dutch Primacy, p. 129, table 5.1, and pp. 140, 143, 146–9, with table 5.9 on p. 147.
19. Ibid., pp. 131–8.
20. Ibid., p. 143.
21. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 160–64, and table 5.12, p. 163; C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825 (London, 1991), pp. 113–14.
22. ‘Lancaster’s Voyage to the East Indies’, in Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, ed. J. Hampden (Oxford, 1958), pp. 399–420; D. Wilson, The World Encompassed: Drake’s Great Voyage 1577–1580 (London, 1977), p. 100; Gastaldi’s map (1546) and Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s map (1576), in P. Whitfield, New Found Lands: Maps in the History of Exploration (London, 1998), pp. 76, 79.
23. ‘Lancaster’s Voyage to the East Indies’, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, p. 411; G. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg: How One Man’s Courage Changed the Course of History (London, 1999), p. 50; J. Keay, The Honourable Company: a History of the English East India Company (London, 1991), pp. 10–23.
24. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 52, 65.
25. Keay, Honourable Company, pp. 14–15.
26. Cited in Keay, Honourable Company, p. 16.
27. Cited in Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 86–7; Keay, Honourable Company, p. 17.
28. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 90, 92, 94.
29. Cited in Keay, Honourable Company, p. 40.
30. Keay, Honourable Company, pp. 45–6, 114; Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, p. 302.
31. Quoted by Keay, Honourable Company, p. 43; also Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, p. 273.
32. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 305–6.
33. Keay, Honourable Company, p. 31.
34. Ibid., pp. 48–50; Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 321–42.
35. Keay, Honourable Compan
y, pp. 21, 36, 38, 53, 58–9, 125–6.
36. P. Stern, The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India (New York and Oxford, 2011), p. 7.
37. P. Lawson, The East India Company: a History (Harlow, 1993), pp. 19–24.
38. G. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch 1600–1853 (Richmond, Surrey, 2000), p. 9.
39. D. Mitchell, The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet (London, 2010).
40. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 8.
41. A. Clulow, The Company She Keeps: the Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan (New York, 2014), pp. 39–40.
42. G. Milton, Samurai William: the Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan (London, 2002); W. de Lange, Pars Japonica: the First Dutch Expedition to Reach the Shores of Japan (Warren, Conn., 2006); also D. Massarella, A World Elsewhere: Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New Haven, 1990) (for England); Clulow, The Company She Keeps, pp. 10–11.
43. Clulow, The Company She Keeps, pp. 25, 33–9, 47–58.
44. Cited in Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 13.
45. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia, pp. 78–80; Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 10–13.
46. Jonathan Swift, Gulliver’s Travels, ch. 25; Clulow, The Company She Keeps, p. 17.
47. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 14–15.
48. Cited in Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 16.
49. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 19; Toyoda Takeshi, A History of pre-Meiji Commerce (Tokyo, 1969), p. 46.
50. Takeshi, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, p. 50.
51. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 240–41; Takeshi, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, pp. 63–4.
52. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 28–9; Clulow, The Company She Keeps, pp. 18, 95, 106–20.
53. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 69–70.
54. Takeshi, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, p. 46.
39. Nations Afloat
1. D. Studnicki-Gizbert, ‘La Nación among the Nations: Portuguese and Other Maritime Trading Diasporas in the Atlantic, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries’, in R. Kagan and P. Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800 (Baltimore, 2009), pp. 75–98.
2. D. Eltis and D. Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven, 2010).
3. R. Smith, The Spanish Guild Merchant: a History of the Consulado, 1250–1700 (Durham, NC, 1940), pp. 103–4.
4. Inquisition records in L. Wolf, ed., The Jews in the Canary Islands (new edn, Toronto, 2001).
5. Studnicki-Gizbert, ‘La Nación among the Nations’, pp. 89–90.
6. D. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640 (New York and Oxford, 2007), p. 11.
7. Cited by Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, p. 36.
8. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, pp. 91–2.
9. R. Rowland, ‘New Christian, Marrano, Jew’, in P. Bernardini and N. Fiering, eds., The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West 1450–1800 (New York, 2001), p. 135.
10. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, p. 72.
11. H. Kellenbenz, Sephardim an der unteren Elbe: ihre wirtschaftliche und politische Bedeutung vom Ende des 16. bis zum Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1958), p. 489.
12. Y. Yovel, The Other Within: the Marranos, Split Identity and Emerging Modernity (Princeton, 2009).
13. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, pp. 96–101; diagram of his connections, p. 99, fig. 4:1.
14. Hamburg: Kellenbenz, Sephardim an der unteren Elbe; Bayonne: G. Nahon, ‘The Portuguese Jewish Nation of Saint-Esprit-lès-Bayonne: the American Dimension’, in Bernardini and Fiering, eds., Jews and the Expansion of Europe, pp. 256–67.
15. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, p. 103, fig. 4:2; Kellenbenz, Sephardim an der unteren Elbe, end map no. 3; Morocco: pp. 146–9; Baltic: pp. 149–55.
16. P. Mark and J. da Silva Horta, ‘Catholics, Jews, and Muslims in Early Seventeenth-Century Guiné’, in Kagan and Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas, pp. 170–94; P. Mark and J. da Silva Horta, The Forgotten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2011).
17. T. Green, The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589 (Cambridge, 2012).
18. J. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640 (Baltimore, 1993).
19. Ibid., pp. 30–31, 42, 45–51, 239–40.
20. J. Boyajian, Portuguese Bankers at the Court of Spain 1626–1650 (New Brunswick, 1983), p. 3.
21. C. Dauverd, Imperial Ambition in the Early Modern Mediterranean: Genoese Merchants and the Spanish Crown (Cambridge, 2014).
22. T. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea: Policy and Power in an Early Modern Maritime Republic 1559–1684 (Baltimore, 2005), pp. 127–33.
23. Boyajian, Portuguese Bankers, pp. 21–2, 33, 106–7.
24. Ibid., pp. 108–16.
25. Ibid., pp. 154–80.
26. S. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: the Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa (Berkeley, 2011), p. xvii.
27. Ibid., pp. 24–36.
28. Ibid., pp. xvii, 226–7; I. Baghdiantz McCabe, ‘Small Town Merchants, Global Ventures: the Maritime Trade of the New Julfan Armenians in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, in M. Fusaro and A. Polónia, eds., Maritime History as Global History (St John’s, Nfdl., 2010), pp. 125–57.
29. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean, pp. 52–4.
30. Armando Cortesão, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, p. 269.
31. F. Trivellato, ‘Sephardic Merchants in the Early Modern Atlantic and Beyond’, in an and Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas, p. 111.
32. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean, pp. 48–51, 55–65, 78, 80.
33. Trivellato, ‘Sephardic Merchants’, p. 110.
40. The Nordic Indies
1. S. Diller, Die Dänen in Indien, Südostasien und China (1620–1845) (Wiesbaden, 1999), p. 133; O. Feldbæk, ‘The Danish Asia Trade 1620–1807’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 39 (1991), pp. 3–27.
2. H. Hodacs, Silk and Tea in the North: Scandinavian Trade and the Market for Asian Goods in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Basingstoke, 2016), pp. 1–20, 48–81.
3. Ibid., pp. 183, 187.
4. Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 11, 114, 267–99.
5. Ibid., p. 39.
6. K. Glamann, ‘The Danish Asiatic Company, 1732–1772’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 8 (1960), pp. 109–49; K. Glamann, ‘The Danish East India Company’, in M. Mollat, ed., Sociétés et Compagnies de Commerce en Orient et dans l’Océan indien (Paris, 1970), pp. 471–9; O. Feldbæk, ‘The Danish Trading Companies of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 34 (1986), pp. 211–13; O. Feldbæk, India Trade under the Danish Flag 1772–1808: European Enterprise and Anglo-Indian Remittance and Trade (Odense, 1969).
7. E. Gøbel, ‘Danish Trade to the West Indies and Guinea, 1671–1754’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 31 (1983), pp. 21–49; G. Nørregård, Danish Settlements in West Africa (Boston, 1966); W. Westergaard, The Danish West Indies under Company Rule (1671–1754) (New York, 1917).
8. E. Gøbel, ‘The Danish Asiatic Company’s Voyages to China, 1732–1833’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 27 (1979), p. 43.
9. A. Friis, ‘La Valeur documentaire des Comptes du Péage du Sund: la période 1571–1618’, in M. Mollat, ed., Les Sources de l’histoire maritime en Europe, du Moyen ge au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1962), pp. 365–82.
10. Feldbæk, ‘Danish Trading Companies’, p. 204; S. Subrahmanyam, ‘The Coromandel Trade of the Danish East India Company, 1618–1649’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 37 (1989), p. 41; H. Furber,
Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient 1600–1800 (Minneapolis, 1976), reprinted in S. Subrahmanyam, ed., Maritime India (New Delhi, 2004), pp. 211, 216; Diller, Dänen in Indien, p. 23.
11. Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade’, pp. 43–4.
12. Facsimile of treaty in Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 155–8, doc. 16a–d; Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade’, p. 45.
13. Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade’, p. 47.
14. Feldbæk, ‘Danish Trading Companies’, p. 207; Diller, Dänen in Indien, p. 111.
15. Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 21, 25 (facsimiles), 34–5, 39, 61–2, 89, 92–3.
16. Feldbæk, ‘Danish Asia Trade’, p. 3.
17. Feldbæk, ‘Danish Trading Companies’, p. 206; Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade’, p. 51.
18. Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade’, pp. 52–3.
19. Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 81, 85, 87; T. Veschow, ‘Voyages of the Danish Asiatic Company to India and China 1772–1792’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 20 (1972), pp. 133–52.
20. D. McCall, ‘Introduction’, in Nørregård, Danish Settlements, pp. xi, xxii; Nørregård, Danish Settlements, pp. 142, 228.
21. Nørregård, Danish Settlements, p. 84.
22. Ibid., pp. 87–9.
23. H. Strömberg, En guide till Göteborgs historia – An Historical Guide to Gothenburg (Gothenburg, 2013), pp. 6, 9; Nørregård, Danish Settlements, pp. 9–10; C. Koninckx, The First and Second Charters of the Swedish East India Company (1731–1766): a Contribution to the Maritime, Economic and Social History of North-Western Europe in Its Relationships with the Far East (Kortrijk, 1980), pp. 33–4.
24. Koninckx, First and Second Charters, pp. 31–3; H. Lindqvist, Våra kolonier: de vi hade och de som aldrig blev av (Stockholm, 2015), pp. 11–13; Nørregård, Danish Settlements, pp. 7–8.
25. Lindqvist, Våra kolonier, pp. 90–99, 114, 117.
26. Nørregård, Danish Settlements, pp. 11–16.
27. Ibid., pp. 22–24, 29–34.
28. Ibid., pp. 33, 52–3, 57.
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