by Benny Morris
Atkinson, Tacy, 194
order, 457; on French takeover, 324–25, 332,
341, 347; on Greek occupation of Smyrna,
Baas, Ahmed Moukhtar, 173, 178, 184–85, 257
271, 430; on Greek sovereignty, 383; on Kemal
Bafra, massacre in, 408, 409–10
and Maraş, 343; on Merzifon missionaries,
Bahri Pasha, 73, 76
412; on population exchange, 468, 471; racial
Balakian, Grigoris, 226, 250
views of, 9; on recovery efforts, 315–16; on
Balfour, Arthur, 268
repatriation, 309, 311, 397; on Smyrna, 442,
Balkans, loss of, 138
445–46, 449; Toynbee claims and, 481; on
Balkan Wars, 15, 16, 16–17, 18, 34, 142,
Treaty of Sèvres, 282; on Ward- Yowell
147, 454
allegations, 427
Ba’quba camp, 310, 380
Britain: Ba’quba camp and, 310; Christians and,
Barnes, Maynard, 438, 440, 450, 451
279, 294–95; on conduct of France, 360;
Barnham, Henry D.: on Armenian rebellion,
Constantinople and, 281; Greece and, 284;
92–93; on arrests, 95; on boycotts of Greek
Greek deportations and, 400–401; in Maraş,
businesses, 152; on communications, 71; on
333; Nationalists and, 277–79, 283, 285–86,
massacres, 79; on religious character of
290, 401–2, 455; perpetrators of war crimes
vio lence, 118; on Zeytun, 98–99, 100, 101
and, 317–21; recovery of women and children
Barnum, Herman Norton, 79–80, 81–82
and, 311–17; return of deportees and,
Barton, James, 269, 306, 455–56
300–302, 307, 308, 327, 393–96; Sykes- Picot
Barutjibashian, Victoria, 177–78
agreement and, 323, 324; Turkey and, 277–79,
Bayar, Celâl, 150–51
293–300
Bekir Bey, 231
Brock, Osmond de Beauvoir, 434–35, 444
Bentinck, Charles, 484
Büge, Eugen, 228
Index
Bulgarians: response to rebellion by, 16–17, 60; in
in Urfa, 87–88; persecutions of in republican
Thrace, 453–54
years, 493; protection of, 109, 110–11; rural,
Bulman, Philip, 123–24, 127, 133–34
24–25, 34–36, 45–46; in Sason, 54–55, 65–66;
Bursa: deportations from, 219–20, 388, 428;
Treaty of Berlin and, 18; treaty to end WWI
economy of, 497; Greek army in, 268, 283,
and, 282; Turkish complaints and allegations
402; Nationalist takeover of, 277; in nineteenth
against, 330–32; Turkish views of, 3, 492–94;
century, 21–24; persecutions in, 152
urban, 21–24. See also Assyrians (Syriacs,
Chaldeans, Nestorians); Priests, torture and
Cambon, Paul, 68, 71, 76
killing of
Catholics in Ottoman Empire, 29, 31
Christian missionaries: in Adana, 227; aid for
Catoni, Joseph, 325
returnees from, 306; in Aleppo, 234–35; in
Celal Bey: in Aleppo, 166, 168, 171, 175, 231; in
Antep, 346; Armenian community and, 29–30;
Konya, 223–24
blame for, 44; Bristol and, 427; documents of,
Celaleddin Bey, 368
9, 10; emigration and, 128; on evacuations,
Cemal Azmi Bey, 181, 185
362; fear of influence of, 115; in Harput,
Cemal Pasha: in Adana, 227–28; in Aleppo, 234;
80–81; in Maraş, 338–40; in Merzifon, 411;
assassination of, 560n2; Balkan Wars and, 147;
murder of, 337; orphanages of, 428; recovery
Dashnaks and, 146; genocide and, 500;
of women and children and, 314–16; in
ideology of, 137; refugee camps of, 229–30;
Samsun, 464; Talât and, 194; teachers in
Sahag and, 250; trial in absentia of, 318;
schools of, 225; Turkish animosity toward,
Zeytun and, 167
411–12; in Van, 161–62, 164; Western ideas
Cemeteries, desecration of, 116, 190, 302, 365,
brought by, 31
367, 454
Christie, Thomas, 122, 294
Cevdet Bey, 161–62, 163, 377, 459
Chrysostomos (bishop of Smyrna), 27, 434,
Chakerian, Anita, 446
435, 437
Chakrian, Arakel, 313
Chukri, Abdullah, 404
Chaldeans. See Assyrians (Syriacs, Chaldeans,
Churchill, Winston, 277–78, 430, 449
Nestorians)
Cilicia: British troops in, 296–97; deportations
Chambers, William Nesbitt, 228, 360
from, 247; evacuations from, 363; fear of
Children: abductions of, 256; Armenian, return
Armenians of, 296; France and, 279–80,
of, 302; attempts to save, 183, 185; Christian,
323–24, 325–26, 341, 347, 350, 354, 358;
recovery of, 311–17; in convoys, 424;
guerrilla war in, 329; massacres in, 143–44,
deportations of, 419, 420; as entrusted to
300; migration of Armenians to, 326;
Muslims, 257; Nazi kidnapping of, 499; rapes
population of, 293; returnees in, 305–6,
of, 257; as refugees, 418; selling of, 236, 301.
310–11; Turkish officers in, 300. See also
See also Orphans
Maraş
Christian communities: in Anatolia, 299; attitude
Clemenceau, Georges, 267–68, 280, 323, 326
and policy toward after WWI, 266, 269; as
Collective guilt, notion of, 319, 505
blamed for massacres, 460; Bristol on, 365–66;
Commissions of inquiry into massacres, 62–63,
Britain and, 279, 294–95; depictions of
64–65, 83–84, 134
atrocities of, in schools, 146–47; destruction of,
Committee of Union and Pro gress. See CUP
5, 485–88; disarmament of, 160, 167, 191,
Confiscation law, 265
217, 224–25, 247, 250; evacuations of,
Constantine (King), 477
360–73; exemptions to deportation law for,
Constantinople: Allies and, 281, 285, 292, 297,
171–72, 202; expulsions of, to Greece,
342, 454–55; deportations from, 213; Greek
456–65; fear of, 48, 492; foreign nationals in,
exodus from, 454; Greek population of,
206; France and, 284, 327–28, 354;
469–71, 473, 474; massacres in, 67–71, 105–6,
Franco- Turkish war and, 359–61; hatred of,
112; in nineteenth century, 21–24; occupation
116–17; Kurds and, 35, 36–37, 38–39, 45, 46,
of, 266, 267; policy regarding returnees of,
65; in Middle East, 494–95; Muslim majority
302–4; recovery of women and children in,
and, 3, 19–20, 109, 110–11, 257; Nationalists
313; refugees in, 463–64, 465
and, 271, 272, 280–81, 289–90; non- Armenian,
Constitution of 1876, restoration of, 137
Index
Conversions to Islam: between 1914 and 1916,
De Lamothe, Marie C. M., 343, 346
255–62; after massacres, 90; in Birecik, 97;
De Nogales, Rafael, 162–63, 203, 232
coerced, 45, 75, 79, 83, 84, 86–87, 102,
Deportations of Kurds, 621n13
118–21; deportations and, 217, 225–26;
De Robeck, John, 279
, 282, 299, 300, 311,
expulsions and, 458; Fitzmaurice on, 87, 90,
341, 342
120–21; imprisonment to coerce, 95;
Disarmament: of Christian communities, 160,
massacres after reversions to Chris tian ity, 121;
167, 191, 217, 224–25, 247, 250; of Turks,
as redeeming potential victims, 494, 499; treaty
272
to end WWI and, 282; in Urmia, 378
Disraeli, Benjamin, 18
Convoys for deportations of Greeks, 421–29
Diyarbekir: Assyrians in, 377; deportations from,
Crathern, C. F. H., 336, 337, 338–39
198–204; ethnic composition of, 204;
Crawford, Lyndon, 186
expulsions from, 473–74; Greek deportees in,
Crete: Muslims under Greek rule in, 483; Turkish
603n286; massacre in, 90–92; Syrian
officials in, 460
Christians of, 202
“Crimes against humanity,” 197, 248, 318
Djennani Hanoum, Sabiha, 289–90
Crow, Francis, 132
Djordian, Garabed, 362–63
Crowe, Eyre, 483
Dobson, Charles, 441
Cumberbatch, Henry Arnold, 51, 126, 128, 131
Documentation: evidence in, 485–86;
CUP (Committee of Union and Pro gress): Balkan
Naim- Andonian collection, 555n119;
Wars and, 147; British occupation and,
sources of, 6–11
296–97; Central Committee of, 251, 318–19,
Dodd, William, 218, 222–23, 258, 344
377; counter- coup against, 226; coup by, 138;
Dragomans, 21–22
founding fathers of, 172; genocidal program
Dufieux, Julien, 343, 352, 354, 359
and, 138–39; ideology of, 137–38; massacres
Dunaway, John, 313
and, 143, 144, 178–79; officer corps and
Dündar, Fuat, 173, 249, 486
recovery of, 272, 273; Ottoman Greeks and,
385; partnership between sultan and, 151;
Eastern provinces: deportations in, 173, 386–91;
postwar court- martial of, 242, 251; purges of
massacres in, 70–73; Trabzon, 73–77, 181–86,
documents of, 7–8; radicalization of, 141–48;
419–21. See also Antep; Diyarbekir; Harput;
repatriation of deportees and, 301; restoration
Maraş; Urfa
of constitution and, 137. See also Cemal Pasha;
Eastern Thrace, 18, 268, 282, 286, 291,
Enver, Ismail; Nâzim Bey, Selanikli Mehmet;
453–54, 483
Special Organ ization; Talât, Mehmed
Eckart, Franz, 209
Currie, Philip, 52, 54, 67, 115, 119
Economic rationales for genocide, 497
Curzon, George: on Armenian legionnaires,
Edip, Halide, 235
323; on Kemal and Maraş, 343; Lausanne
Edirne: deportations from, 214–17; in nineteenth
negotiations and, 289, 290; on massacre in
century, 21–24
Maraş, 340; on meeting with Poincaré, 454–55;
Eğin, massacre in, 108–10
on population exchange, 470–71; Rumbold
Ehmann, Johannes, 192
and, 278; on Turkey, 317; Yerevan and, 310
Ehneche, massacre in, 349
Cushman, Emma, 316
Elliott, M. C., 441
Enver, Ismail: on allied interference with
Dadrian, Vahakn, 130, 159
deportations, 388; on Armenian soldiers, 158;
Daghmatian, Mihran, 56
Balkan Wars and, 147; coup led by, 138; death
Dashnak Party, 40–41, 142, 145–46, 175, 247
of, 560n2; on holy war, 495; Jackson and, 238;
Davis, C. Claflin, 438, 444
on Kurds, 621n13; offensive against Rus sia of,
Davis, Leslie, 1–2, 180–81, 192, 193, 194–97,
156–57; on Rus sian Armenians, 162; trial in
198
absentia of, 318; War Ministry meetings
Death marches, deportations as, 174–75
chaired by, 453. See also Special Organ ization
De Caix, Robert, 350
Erzurum, deportation from, 175–81
Defrance, Albert, 281
Essad Bey, 75
Deir Zor camp, 212, 236–43
Ethnic cleansing. See Genocidal program
Index
Euphrates River, massacres along, 238–40, 239,
249–55; as state plan, 1–3, 244–45, 252–55.
241, 255
See also Holocaust; Special Organ ization
Exemptions from deportations, 223, 250
German Foreign Ministry archive, 10–11
Exile: internal, 126; of Ottoman Greeks, 141–42
Germany and deportations, 177. See also
Holocaust
Faik, Süleyman, 159, 189, 250
Gibbons, Herbert Adams, 420
Faisal (Prince, Damascus), 313, 323, 350, 351
Gladstone, William, 17, 496
Fakhri Pasha, 208
Gough- Calthorpe, Somerset, 203, 265, 318, 319,
Fenanga, Agnes, 360
392, 429, 430
Ferid Pasha, Damat, 319
Gouraud, Henri, 338, 352, 353, 354
Fethi Bey, 269, 405, 409, 426
Graffam, Mary, 188
Final Solution, origins of, 245–46
Graves, Robert Windham, 48, 56, 64, 102, 107,
First Balkan War, 138
119, 127–28, 130
Fitzmaurice, G. H.: on conversions, 87, 90,
Great War. See World War I (WWI)
120–21; on emigration, 128; on fanat i cism,
Greco- Turkish war: armistice for, 448; emigration
116; on massacres, 72, 85–86, 88–89, 96–97
and, 361; major battles of, 384; mistreatment of
Fontana, Raphael, 73, 81, 108, 109, 116, 123,
Greek prisoners of war during, 428–29; views
124, 133
of Anatolian Greeks during, 381–82. See also
Foreign observers, condemnation by, 76
Greek army
France: Adana and, 352–53; Antep and, 345–48,
Greece: Armenian refugees and, 365; cession of
349–50, 353–55; Cilicia and, 279–80, 323–24,
Eastern Thrace and Smyrna to, 282; as cultural
325–26, 341, 347, 350, 354, 358; evacuations
beacon for Ottoman Greeks, 25–27; exodus of
and, 364, 366; Franco- Turkish war, 297;
Christians to, 450–55; expulsions to, 456–65;
guerrilla war against, 328, 329, 332, 333–35,
Nationalists and, 284; population- exchange
337–38, 344; handover of territories to, 321;
agreement between Turkey and, 467–72, 474;
Legion Armenienne and, 321–23; Nationalists
refugees in, 463–64, 465–67, 470, 472; Treaty
and, 279–80, 283–84, 288–89, 290, 328,
of Berlin and, 18–19; Turkey and, 292; in
358–59, 361; occupation by, 271, 327–28,
WWI, 385. See also Greco- Turkish war
332–45; return of deportees and, 300–301,
Greek army: atrocities against Turks and, 475–81;
327; as source of documentation, 9–10; Tarsus
defeat of, at Afyon Karahisar, 434–35; eastward
and, 324–25; Turkey and, 279–80, 288–89;
advance of, 283; massacres by, 430–33;
Urfa and, 348–49; withdrawal by, 367
occupation by, 267–69, 271, 272, 320, 391,
Franklin- Bouillon, Henry, 283–84, 285,
394, 429–35; retaliation for destruction caused
3
58–59, 360
by, 441; scorched- earth tactics of, 482
Franklin- Bouillon— Y. Kemal agreement, 358–59,
Greek deportees, return of, 300–301, 307, 383,
360–61, 363
393–97
Fuat Cebesoy, Ali, 383
Greeks: fear of, 382; Pontic movement, 381–84;
Fuller, Americus, 93–94, 95, 128
as prisoners of war, 428–29. See also Anatolian
Greeks; Greek army
Gallipoli campaign, 158, 215, 244, 252, 273, 277
Grescovich, Paul, 445
Garo, Armen, 104
Gümüşhane, massacre at, 184–85
Gates, Caleb F., 80–81, 82, 123, 308, 313,
Gurun, Kamuran, 33
322, 456
Gurun, massacre in, 96
Gehri, Maurice, 478–79
Gust, Wolfgang, 11
General Revolutionary Organ ization of the
Islamic World, 272
Hacin, siege of, 355–57
Genocidal program: cumulative- radicalization
Hadir Pasha, Ali, 430
approach to, 246–48; CUP and, 245;
Hakkari area, Assyrians in, 374, 375–76
deportations as, 248–49; differential treatment
Hakki Bey (ambassador to Rome), 149–50
in, 488–90; number killed during, 44, 130–32,
Hakki Bey, Ismail (Adana), 228
486–88; periods and evolution of, 4, 491–99,
Halil Bey (foreign minister), 216
505–6; plan for, 141, 248–49; preparation for,
Halil Pasha (military officer), 162, 163
Index
Hallward, Cecil: on abductions of women, 122,
Hunchak Party, 40–41, 67, 69, 93, 98–99, 103–4,
124; on Diyarbekir, 91, 92, 121; on fanat i cism,
142, 145
65; in Muş, 61; on Turkish explanations for
Hurst, L. J., 307
massacres, 64; on Van, 60, 101–2, 113
Husni Bey, 480–81
Hamdi Pasha, 73, 76
Hussein Pasha, 89
Hamid (Hamit) Bey, Kapancızade (Samsun),
382–83, 395
Iffet Bey, 99
Hamid Bey (Diyarbekir), 199
Ihsan, Ali, 272
Hamid Bey (Nationalist, Red Crescent Director),
Imperial bounties, 69
367, 450, 451, 469–70
Inebolu bombardment, 407
Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments, 42, 57, 94
Investigations of massacres of 1894–1896, 62–63,
Hampson, Charles, 72, 111, 119, 121
64–65, 83–84, 136
Harbord, James, 288
Iraq: British mandate of, 290; Christian
Harington, Charles, 285, 455, 483
communities in, 494–95
Harlow, Ralph, 146
Islam: CUP and, 147–48; Kurds and Sunni
Harput: arrival of deportees in, 180–81; convoys
tribesmen and, 37; in Maraş, 46; role of, in
passing through, 425–26; deportations from,