Table 10.3 Pattern Matrix of a Principal Axis Analysis of Emotion Data
Note: N = 455. Emotion judgments were made on 0 = None of this feeling to 4 = A great deal of this feeling using multiple items for each affect: Happiness (happy, excited, eager, and cheerful; α = .90), contentment (content, calm, satisfied, and tranquil; α = .71), anger (angry, irritated, annoyed, and aggravated; α = .88), sadness (sad, dreary, and dismal; α = .50), and fear (fearful, afraid, and scared; α = .85).
Another reason for the endurance of the valence perspective may lie with the methods that are commonly employed in studies of affect. Atheoretical applications of exploratory factor analysis to emotion data typically produce one positive emotion factor and one negative emotion factor. To generate an example, undergraduate students at Penn State were asked to react to a one-page print advertisement regarding participation in an education program that would render them eligible for a free tablet personal computer (Seo & Dillard, 2012). The message recipients provided information regarding their emotional reactions as well as estimates of their intention to take part in the program. Next, the emotion data were submitted to a principle axis factor analysis followed by oblique rotation. Table 10.3. gives the loadings for the pattern matrix, which are reasonably clear and perfectly typical: There are two factors, one composed of positive emotions and the other consisting of negative emotions. This simple, intuitive solution looks as if it conforms perfectly with the valence model of affect. In line with the factor analytic findings, we created two variables to represent positive and negative affect (i.e., happiness + contentment and anger + sadness + fear). These two variables were then used as predictors of intention to participate in the education program for personal computer (sample item: If I can, I will take part in the Free Tablet PC Program). The regression analysis yielded standardized coefficients of .40, p < .05, for positive affect and −.23, p < .05 for negative affect. Anyone looking at these results might conclude that positive affect promotes persuasion, while negative affect has an inhibitory effect.
But, there is a fly in the ointment. The purpose of factor analysis is to group things together that are similar. If the factor analytic findings constitute a useful description of reality, then the elements of each factor must show similar effects. To test for this pattern, a second regression analysis was conducted in which each of the emotions was used as separate predictors of intention. The results showed that the emotions that made up the positive emotion factor did not show consistent relationships with behavioral intention. Happiness was directly associated with intention (β = .62, p < .05), but contentment showed the opposite relationship (β = −.20, p < .05). Thus, the positive emotions did not exhibit similar effects. Attention to the negative emotions yielded a complementary conclusion: Anger was significantly and inversely related to intention (β = −.14, p < .05), but the weights for sadness and fear were functionally zero (β = −.03 and β = −.04, both nonsignificant). Hence, the negative emotions did not exhibit similar effects. Overall then, the exploratory factor analysis encourages grouping the data in a way that produces inaccurate conclusions and obscures the true nature of the data. In contrast, allowing theory to direct the analysis provides a justifiably variegated approach to the analysis.
Given their ubiquity and endurance, it seems that valence models must be capturing something of use. But, what that might be is not evident. It would be far more useful to reject this simplification of emotional influence and get on with the business of refining theory and conducting research that is equal in nuance to human experience.
The Value of Research on Style and Accompaniments
Most of the time, content is king: Genuine differences in message content evoke different cognitive and emotional responses, as well as varying degrees of persuasion (although, of course, these differences must be perceived). It is not the least surprising that many applied persuasion campaigns undertake formative research with the goal of identifying substantive arguments to support the goal of changing beliefs, attitudes, and behavior (chapter 17 in this volume). There is little reason to question the desirability of this aim. However, there is at least one significant barrier to achieving it.
Argument novelty has been posited to a necessary condition for persuasion (Morley & Walker, 1987). Minimally, new arguments carry more weight than those that have been heard before (Prochaska, Johnson, & Lee, 1998, p. 68). In some persuasive domains, argument novelty may be an infinite resource. Political campaigns come quickly to mind: They are endlessly creative because they are so frequently unbeholden to facts. In other areas, practical or ethical considerations constrain the available pool of novel arguments. Health-related persuasion surely ought to be limited to the facts as they are understood by the community of science. This means that the claim that smoking causes cancer has been repeated so many times that it may be virtually impossible to find an audience for whom the claim is novel. Hence, persuasion practitioners who aim to reduce risky health behaviors, diminish crime, or encourage physical activity may have few alternatives other than style and accompaniments in the production of effective campaigns.
This is not to suggest that efforts to devise compelling arguments should be abandoned. Rather, it implies that, if campaigns are to maximize their impact, they must consider message features in addition to argumentative content. To the extent that those features mold parts of the persuasive process, it is likely that their influence derives from emotional arousal. The graphic imagery that appears on cigarette packages in some non-U.S. countries, is an opportunity to understand the interplay of emotion and persuasion, as well as a possible means of improving public health. In this same vein, the well-established tendency for human facial expression to create emotional contagion has not generated a body of persuasion research that is commensurate with the power of the concept. Anthropomorphic inclinations that produce imposition of human faces on nonhuman objects offers intriguing possibilities (Landwehr, McGill, & Hermann, 2011). Not to be overlooked are the more subtle aspects of the visual experience, such as color and script style (Wakefield, Germain, & Durkin, 2008) or camera angle (Giessner, Ryan, Schubert, & van Quaquebeke, 2011).
In short, efforts to enhance our understanding of stylistic issues are needed. Such research can be intellectually provocative and theoretically stimulating. In some applied settings, it may be the only available means of enhancing persuasive effectiveness.
Conclusion
* * *
The artist Vincent van Gogh said “Let’s not forget that the little emotions are the great captains of our lives and we obey them without realizing it.” He was certainly correct in identifying emotion as a powerful determinant of human action. Indeed, much of this chapter has reviewed research that accords perfectly with van Gogh’s assertion. Yet, on his last point—that “we obey them without realizing it”—van Gogh may have overstepped. Message consumers do have the ability to defuse emotion-induced judgments and action tendencies by monitoring their feelings and recognizing the causes of those affects. Communication researchers have the opportunity to create theory that links messages features with emotional response and emotional response with important persuasion outcomes. The development of a scientific account of emotion and persuasion is a worthy aim in its own right. To the extent that it enables audience members to better understand and manage the relationship between persuasive appeals and emotion impact, it furthers the goals of creating more effective citizens, more critical consumers, and more successful decision makers.
References
* * *
Aarøe, L. (2011). Investigating frame strength: The case of episodic and thematic frames. Political Communication, 28, 207–226.
Agrawal, N., & Duhachek, A. (2010). Emotional compatibility and the effectiveness of anti-drinking messages: A defensive processing perspective on shame and guilt. Journal of Marketing Research, 47, 263–273.
Anghelcev, G., & Sar, S. (2011). The influence of pre-existing audience mood on message relevance
and the effectiveness of health PSAs: Differential effects by message type. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 88, 481–501.
Aristotle. (2007). On rhetoric: A theory of civic discourse (George A. Kennedy, Trans., 2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University.
Banerjee, S. C., Greene, K., & Yanovitzky, I. (2011). Sensation seeking and dosage effect: An exploration of the role of surprise in anti-cocaine messages. Journal of Substance Abuse, 16, 1–13.
Brader, T. (2005). Striking a responsive chord: How political ads motivate and persuade voters by appealing to emotions. American Journal of Political Science, 49, 388–405.
Chang, C. (2011). The influence of editorial liking and editorial-induced affect on evaluations of subsequent ads. Journal of Advertising, 40, 45–58.
Cho, H., & Boster, F. J. (2008). Effects of gain versus loss frame antidrug ads on adolescents. Journal of Communication, 58, 428–446.
Dillard, J. P., & Meijnders, A. (2002). Persuasion and the structure of affect. In J. P. Dillard & M. W. Pfau (Eds.), The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 309–328). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dillard, J. P., & Nabi, R. (2006). The persuasive influence of emotion in cancer prevention and detection messages. Journal of Communication, 56, s123–s139.
Dillard, J. P., & Peck, E. (2001). Persuasion and the structure of affect: Dual systems and discrete emotions as complementary models. Human Communication Research, 27, 38–68.
Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 51–58.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Giessner, S. R., Ryan, M. K., Schubert, T. W., & van Quaquebeke, N. (2011). The power of pictures: Vertical angles in power pictures. Media Psychology, 14, 442–464.
Gross, K. (2008). Framing persuasive appeals: Episodic and thematic framing, emotional response, and policy opinion. Political Psychology, 29, 169–192.
Gross, K., & D’Ambrosio, L. (2004). Framing emotional response. Political Psychology, 25, 1–29.
Huddy, L., Feldman, S., Taber, C., & Lahav, G. (2005). Threat, anxiety, and support of anti-terrorism policies. American Journal of Political Science, 49, 610–625.
Huddy, L., & Gunnthorsdottir, A. H. (2000). The persuasive effects of emotive visual imagery: Superficial manipulation or the product of passionate reason? Political Psychology, 21, 745–778.
Iyer, A., Schmader, T., & Lickel, B. (2007). Why individuals protest the perceived transgressions of their country: The role of anger, shame, and guilt. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 572–587.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–291.
Kim, H., Park, K., & Schwarz, N. (2010). Will this trip really be exciting? The role of incidental emotions in product evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 983–991.
Landwehr, J. R., McGill, A. L., & Hermann, A. (2011). It’s got the look: The effect of friendly and aggressive “facial” expressions on product liking and sales. Journal of Marketing, 75, 132–146.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lerner, J. S., Gonzalez, R. M., Small, D. A., & Fischhoff, B. (2003). Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism: A national field experiment. Psychological Science, 14, 144–150.
Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2000). Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgment and choice. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 473–493.
Lerner, J. S., & Tiedens, L. Z. (2006). Portrait of the angry decision maker: How appraisal tendencies shape anger’s influence on cognition. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19, 115–137.
Lindsey, L. L. M., Yun, K, A., & Hill, J. B. (2007). Anticipated guilt as motivation to help unknown others: An examination of empathy as a moderator. Communication Research, 34, 468–480.
Lombard, M., Reich, R. D., Grabe, M. E., Bracken, C. C., & Ditton, T. B. (2000). Presence and television: The role of screen size. Human Communication Research, 26, 75–98.
Major, L. H. (2011). The mediating role of emotions in the relationship between frames and attribution of responsibility for health problems. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 88, 502–522.
McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20, 415–433.
Millar, M., & Millar, K. (2000). Promoting safe driving behavior: The influence of message framing and issue involvement. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 853–866.
Miller, G. A. (2003). The cognitive revolution: A historical perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 141–144
Morley, D. D., & Walker, K. (1987). The role of importance, novelty, and plausibility in producing belief change. Communication Monographs, 54, 436–442.
Nabi, R. L. (1999). A cognitive-functional model for the effects of discrete negative emotions on information processing, attitude change, and recall. Communication Theory, 9, 292–320.
Nabi, R. L. (2010). The case for emphasizing discrete emotions in communication research. Communication Monographs, 77, 153–159.
Nan, X. (2009). Emotional responses to televised PSAs and their influence on persuasion: An investigation of the moderating role of faith in intuition. Communication Studies, 5, 426–442.
O’Keefe, D. J., & Jensen, J. D. (2006). The advantages of compliance or the disadvantages of noncompliance? A meta-analytic review of the relative persuasive effectiveness of gain-framed and loss-framed messages. Communication Yearbook, 30, 1–43.
Phan, K. L., Wager, T., Taylor, S. F., & Liberzon, I. (2002). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. NeuroImage, 16, 331–348.
Prochaska, J. O., Johnson, S., & Lee, P. (1998). The transtheoretical model of behavior change. In S. A. Schumaker, E. B. Schron, J. K. Ockene, & W. L. McBee (Eds.), The handbook of health behavior change (pp. 59–84), 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer.
Roseman, I. J. (2001). A model of appraisal in the emotion system: Integrating theory, research, and applications. In K. R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.), Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research (pp. 68–91). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Russell, J. A., & Feldman Barrett, L. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 805–819.
Scherer, K. R. (1984). On the nature and function of emotion: A component process approach. In K. R. Scherer, & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 293–317). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A., & Johnstone, T. (Eds.). (2001). Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Schneider, T. R., Salovey, P., Apanovitch, A. M., Pizarro, J., McCarthy, D., Zullo, J., et al. (2001). The effects of message framing and ethnic targeting on mammography use among low-income women. Health Psychology, 20, 256–266.
Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513–523.
Seo, K., & Dillard, J. P. (2012). (Unpublished data). University Park: Pennsylvania State University.
Shen, L., & Dillard, J. P. (2007). The influence of behavior inhibition/approach systems and message framing on the processing of persuasive health messages. Communication Research, 34, 433–467.
Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002). The affect heuristic. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin, & D. Kahneman (Eds.), Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 397–420). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Slovic, P., & Peters, E. (2006). Risk perception and affect. Current Directions in Psycho
gical Science, 15, 322–325.
Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2008). The evolutionary psychology of the emotions and their relationship to internal regulatory variables. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 114–137.) New York, NY: Guilford.
Turner, M. M. (2007). Using emotion in risk communication: The Anger Activism Model. Public Relations Review, 33, 114–119.
Wakefield, M. A., Germain, D., & Durkin, S. J. (2008). How does increasingly plainer cigarette packaging influence adult smokers’ perceptions about brand preference? An experimental study. Tobacco Control, 17, 416–421.
Wang, X. (2011). The role of anticpated guilt in intentions to register as organ donors and to discuss organ donation with family. Health Communication, 26, 683–690.
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1994). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule-Expanded Form. Iowa City: University of Iowa.
Yan, C., Dillard, J. P., & Shen, F. (2010). The effects of mood, message framing, and behavioral advocacy on persuasion. Journal of Communication, 60, 344–363.
Yan, C., Dillard, J. P., & Shen, F. (in press). Emotion, motivation, and the persuasive effects of message framing. Journal of Communication.
Zanna, M. P., & Rempel, J. K. (1988). Attitudes: A new look at an old concept. In D. Bar-Tal & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), The social psychology of knowledge (pp. 315–334). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Zillmann, D. (1999). Exemplification theory: Judging the whole by some of its parts. Media Psychology, 1, 69–94.
Zillmann, D. (2006). Exemplification effects in the promotion of safety and health. Journal of Communication, 56, S221–S237.
The SAGE Handbook of Persuasion Page 33