by Ben Shapiro
17. Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy (New York: Pocket Books, 1926), 39.
18. Plato, The Republic, 473c–d.
19. Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 85–87 (italics in original).
20. Matthew J. Franck, “Fr. Barron and Prof. Popper—and Popper’s Critics,” FirstThings.com, June 20, 2013, https://www.firstthings.com/blogs/firstthoughts/2013/06/fr-barron-and-prof-popper-and-poppers-critics.
21. Aristotle, Politics of Aristotle, trans. Benjamin Jowett (New York: Colonial Press, 1899), Book II, Chapter V, http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.2.two.html.
22. Cicero, De Re Publica (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 2000), 211.
23. Ibid., 203.
24. Mogens Herman Hansen, “Democratic Freedom and the Concept of Freedom in Plato and Aristotle,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 50 (2010): 1–27.
CHAPTER 4: COMING TOGETHER
1.Naomi Pasachoff and Robert J. Littman, A Concise History of the Jewish People (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 67.
2.Jonathan Sacks, The Great Partnership: Science, Religion, and the Search for Meaning (New York: Schocken Books, 2011), 83.
3.Richard Tarnas, The Passion of the Western Mind (New York: Ballantine Books, 1991), 103.
4.Romans 10:4–13 (NIV).
5. Linda Zagzebski and Timothy D. Miller, eds., Readings in Philosophy of Religion (Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell, 1999), 488.
6.Johannes Quasten, Walter Burghardt, and Thomas Lawler, eds., Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1982), 59.
7.Ernest L. Fortin, “St. Augustine,” in History of Political Philosophy, 3rd ed., ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Crowley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 196.
8.St. Augustine, The City of God, trans. William Babcock (New York: New City Press, 2012), 55.
9.St. Augustine, The Letters of St. Augustine, trans. J. G. Cunningham (Loschberg, Germany: Jazzybee Verlag, 2015), 180.
10. Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 5–6.
11. Ibid., 83–84.
12. Karen Osman, The Italian Renaissance (New York: Lucent Books, 1996), 20.
13. Andrew Fleming West, “The Seven Liberal Arts,” in Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1912), http://classicalsubjects.com/resources/TheSevenLiberalArts.pdf.
14. Rodney Stark, How the West Won: The Neglected Story of the Triumph of Modernity (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2014).
15. Ibid., 124–36.
16. Tarnas, The Passion of the Western Mind, 175.
17. Thomas E. Woods Jr., “The Catholic Church and the Creation of the University,” LewRockwell.com, May 16, 2005, https://www.catholiceducation.org/en/education/catholic-contributions/the-catholic-church-and-the-creation-of-the-university.html.
18. Michael W. Tkacz, “St. Augustine’s Appropriation and Transformation of Aristotelian Eudaimonia,” in The Reception of Aristotle’s Ethics, ed. Jon Miller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 67.
19. Thomas P. Rausch, Reconciling Faith and Reason: Apologists, Evangelists, and Theologians in a Divided Church (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2000), 12.
20. Edward Feser, The Last Superstition (South Bend, IN: St. Augustine’s Press, 2008), 91–96.
21. St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, vol. 1, 418.
22. Edward Feser, Aquinas: A Beginner’s Guide (Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 2009), 39.
23. Fortin, “St. Thomas Aquinas,” in History of Political Philosophy, 252.
24. Stark, How the West Won, 170.
25. Peter Karl Koritansky, Thomas Aquinas and the Philosophy of Punishment (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2012), 81–86.
CHAPTER 5: ENDOWED BY THEIR CREATORS
1.Rodney Stark, How the West Won: The Neglected Story of the Triumph of Modernity (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2014), 175–77.
2.Steph Solis, “Copernicus and the Church: What the History Books Don’t Say,” CSMonitor.com, February 19, 2013, https://www.csmonitor.com/Technology/2013/0219/Copernicus-and-the-Church-What-the-history-books-don-t-say.
3.Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury, “Vatican Admits Galileo Was Right,” NewScientist.com, November 7, 1992, https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13618460.600-vatican-admits-galileo-was-right-/.
4.Del Ratzsch, “The Religious Roots of Science,” in Melville Y. Stewart, Science and Religion in Dialogue, vol. 1 (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell 2009), 59.
5.Stark, How the West Won, 317.
6.Ratzsch, “The Religious Roots of Science,” 59.
7.Isaac Newton, Keynes Ms. 7, King’s College, Cambridge UK, http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/THEM00007.
8.Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy (New York: Pocket Books, 1926), 129.
9.B. H. G. Wormald, Francis Bacon: History, Politics & Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 262.
10. Durant, The Story of Philosophy, 122.
11. Francis Bacon, “Atheism,” in Lord Bacon’s Essays, ed. James R. Boyed (New York and Chicago: A. S. Barnes, 1867), 133.
12. Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, ed. Joseph Devey (New York: P. F. Collier, 1902; originally published 1620), CXXIX, http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/bacon-novum-organum.
13. Richard Kennington, “René Descartes,” in History of Political Philosophy, 3rd ed., ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Crowley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 422.
14. René Descartes, Discourse on Method (Harvard Classics, 1909–1914), part IV, http://www.bartleby.com/34/1/4.html.
15. Annabel Brett, “Introduction,” in Marsilius of Padua, The Defender of the Peace, trans. Annabel Brett (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
16. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. W. K. Marriott (Italy, 1532; Project Gutenberg, 2006), https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm.
17. Niccolò Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, trans. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
18. Joseph Loconte, “How Martin Luther Advanced Freedom,” Wall Street Journal, October 26, 2017.
19. Duncan B. Forrester, “Martin Luther and John Calvin,” in History of Political Philosophy, 335.
20. Richard H. Cox, “Hugo Grotius,” in History of Political Philosophy, 389.
21. David Novak, Natural Law in Judaism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 156.
22. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1947; reprinted from the 1651 ed.), 47.
23. Laurence Berns, “Thomas Hobbes,” in History of Political Philosophy, 396–419.
24. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, 3rd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), Book 1, Sec. 30.
25. Ibid., Book 2, Sec. 57.
26. Ibid., Book 2, Sec. 222.
27. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London: Methuen, 1776), Book IV, Chapter 9, Sec. 50.
28. Thomas Jefferson, “To Henry Lee,” May 8, 1825, in The Works of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Leicester Ford, vol. 10, Federal Edition (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904–1905), 342–43.
29. Michael Pakaluk, “Aristotle, Natural Law, and the Founders,” NLNRAC.org, http://www.nlnrac.org/classical/aristotle#_ednref3.
30. Pauline Maier, “The Strange History of ‘All Men Are Created Equal,’” Washington and Lee Law Review 56, no. 3 (June 1, 1999): 873–88, https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1547&context=wlulr.
31. Thomas G. West, The Political Theory of the American Founding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 30–31.
32. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (London: William Tegg, 1849), 168–69.
33. Harry V. Jaffa, “Aristotle and Locke in the American Founding,” C
laremont Review of Books 1, no. 2 (Winter 2001), http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/aristotle-and-locke-in-the-american-founding/.
34. “From John Adams to Massachusetts Militia, October 11, 1798,” https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-3102.
35. George Washington, “First Inaugural Address,” April 30, 1789, https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals/inaugtxt.html.
36. Thomas Jefferson, “A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom, 18 June 1779,” https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-02-02-0132-0004-0082.
37. John Adams, The Works of John Adams, vol. 6 (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), 448, 519.
38. Thomas Jefferson, Letter to James Madison, 27 April 1809, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-01-02-0140.
39. Alexis de Tocqueville, “On the Use that the Americans Make of Association in Civil Life,” in Democracy in America, ed. and trans. Harvey Mansfield and Delba Winthrop (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/805328.html.
40. James Madison, Federalist No. 51, The Avalon Project, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed51.asp.
41. Peter C. Myers, “Frederick Douglass’s America: Race, Justice, and the Promise of the Founding,” Heritage.org, January 11, 2011, https://www.heritage.org/political-process/report/frederick-douglasss-america-race-justice-and-the-promise-the-founding.
42. Ibid.
CHAPTER 6: KILLING PURPOSE, KILLING CAPACITY
1.Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. W. K. Marriott (Italy, 1532; Project Gutenberg, 2006), https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm.
2.Harvey C. Mansfield, Machiavelli’s Virtue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 11.
3.Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1947; reprinted from the 1651 ed.), 196–97.
4.Ibid., 47.
5.Ibid., 63.
6.Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy (New York: Pocket Books, 1926), 152.
7.Baruch Spinoza, Spinoza: Complete Works, ed. Michael L. Morgan, trans. Samuel Shirley (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2002), 504.
8.Ibid., 456.
9.Durant, The Story of Philosophy, 175–76.
10. Ibid., 189–96.
11. Voltaire, A Philosophical Dictionary, from the French, vol. 3 (London: John and Henry L. Hunt, 1824), 155–56.
12. Voltaire, The Works of Voltaire: A Philosophical Dictionary, vol. 12 (Paris: E. R. DuMont, 1901), 18.
13. Graham Gargett, “Voltaire and the Bible,” in The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire, ed. Nicholas Cronk (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 196–99.
14. Voltaire, Candide or Optimism, ed. and trans. Theo Cuffe (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 4.
15. Voltaire, “The Nature of Pleasure,” in John Morley, ed., The Works of Voltaire: A Contemporary Version, trans. William F. Fleming, vol. 10 (New York: E. R. DuMont, 1901), 243–44.
16. Immanuel Kant, “What Is Enlightenment?,” trans. Mary C. Smith, http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/CCREAD/etscc/kant.html.
17. The Cambridge Companion to Kant, ed. Paul Guyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 1.
18. Durant, The Story of Philosophy, 265–77.
19. Immanuel Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. James W. Ellington (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1994), 2:421.
20. Ross Harrison, “Bentham,” in The Philosophers: Introducing Great Western Thinkers, ed. Ted Honderich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 128.
21. Vickie B. Sullivan, Machiavelli, Hobbes, & the Formation of a Liberal Republicanism in England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 93–95.
22. Richard Kennington, “René Descartes,” in History of Political Philosophy, 3rd ed., ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Crowley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 421–39.
23. Benedict de Spinoza, On the Improvement of the Understanding/The Ethics/Correspondence, trans. R. H. M. Elwes (New York: Dover, 1955), 390.
24. David Hume, “Moral Distinctions Not Derived from Reason,” in Ethical Theory: An Anthology, ed. Russ Shafer-Landau (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 10–11.
25. Mary Ann Glendon, The Forum and the Tower: How Scholars and Politicians Have Imagined the World, from Plato to Eleanor Roosevelt (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 122.
26. Daniel C. Dennett, Darwin’s Dangerous Idea (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1995), 521.
27. Jason Farago, “Who’s Afraid of the Marquis de Sade?,” BBC.com, October 6, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20141006-marquis-de-sade-still-shocking.
28. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, The Brothers Karamazov, trans. Constance Garnett (New York: Barnes & Noble Classics, 2004), 234–40.
29. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Notes from the Underground (Ebook).
30. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, vol. 11: Thus Spake Zarathustra, ed. Oscar Levy (New York: Macmillan, 1911), 335.
31. Ibid., 146.
32. Ibid., 351.
CHAPTER 7: THE REMAKING OF THE WORLD
1.Phillip Nicholas Furbank, Diderot: A Critical Biography (London: Faber and Faber, 2011), 354.
2.Jonah Goldberg, The Suicide of the West (New York: Crown Forum, 2018), 153.
3.Thomas Carlyle, The French Revolution: A History (London: Chapman and Hall, 1857), 300.
4.Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 98.
5.Ibid., 28.
6.“February 5, 1794 (17 Pluvoise, An II): Robespierre’s Report on the Principles of Political Morality,” in The French Revolution, ed. Paul H. Beik (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 280–83.
7.Jessica Riskin, The Restless Clock (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 160.
8.Lester G. Crocker, Diderot’s Chaotic Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), 100.
9.“Declaration of the Rights of Man—1789,” The Avalon Project, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rightsof.asp.
10. Raymond Jonas, France and the Cult of the Sacred Heart (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 74.
11. David P. Jordan, The Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 33.
12. James Miller, Rousseau: Dreamer of Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), 163–64.
13. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 8–9.
14. Ibid., 79–80.
15. Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind (Chicago: Regnery Books, 1986), 29.
16. William Rogers Brubaker, “The French Revolution and the Invention of Citizenship,” French Politics and Society 7, no. 3 (Summer 1989): 30–49, https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/brubaker/Publications/04_The_French_Revolution_and_the_Invention_of_Citizenship.pdf.
17. Alan Forrest, “L’armée de l’an II: la levée en masse et la création d’un mythe républicain,” August 23, 1793, http://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/1385#bodyftn15.
18. Donald Stoker, Clausewitz (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 19.
19. Yoram Hazony, The Virtue of Nationalism (New York: Hachette Book Group, 2018), 24–25.
20. Goldberg, The Suicide of the West, 313.
21. Pierre Hasner, “Georg W. F. Hegel,” in History of Political Philosophy, 3rd ed., ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Crowley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 733–58.
22. Harrison Fluss, “Hegel on Bastille Day,” Jacobin, July 14, 2016, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/07/hegel-bastille-day-burke-french-revolution.
23. Sean Monahan, “Reading Paine from the Left,” Jacobinmag.com, March 6, 2015, https://www.jacobinmag.com/2015/03/thomas-paine-american-revolution-common-sense/.
24. Henry Heller, “Marx, the French Revolution, and the Spectre of the Bourgeoisie,” Science and Society 74, no. 2 (April 2010): 184–214.
25. Jon Elster, Making Sense of Marx (New York: Cambridge Unive
rsity Press, 1985), 168.
26. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005), 152.
27. Karl Marx, The German Ideology (Moscow, 1932; Marxist Internet Archive, accessed 2018), https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01d.htm. Written in 1845.
28. Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 67–68.
29. Karl Marx, Critique of Hegel’s “Philosophy of Right” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 131.
30. Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 71.
31. Peter McPhee, ed., A Companion to the French Revolution, (Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2013), 346–47.
32. Carl K. Y. Shaw, “Hegel’s Theory of Modern Bureaucracy,” The American Political Science Review 86, no. 2 (June 1992): 381–89.
33. Martin Slattery, Key Ideas in Sociology (Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes, 2003), 28.
34. Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biography, vol. 1 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 187–88.
35. Robert Horwitz, “John Dewey,” in History of Political Philosophy, 851–69.
36. Ronald J. Pestritto, “Progressivism and America’s Tradition of Natural Law and Natural Rights,” NLNRAC.org, http://www.nlnrac.org/critics/american-progressivism#_edn1.
37. John R. Shook and James A. Good, John Dewey’s Philosophy of Spirit, with the 1897 Lecture on Hegel (New York: Fordham University Press, 2010), 29.
38. Ronald J. Pestritto, Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).
39. As quoted in Ronald J. Pestritto, “Woodrow Wilson and the Rejection of the Founders’ Principles,” Hillsdale.edu, https://online.hillsdale.edu/document.doc?id=313.
40. Woodrow Wilson: The Essential Political Writings, ed. Ronald J. Pestritto (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 184.
41. Manuel Borutta, “Enemies at the Gate: The Moabit Klostersturm and the Kulturkampf: Germany,” in Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Europe, ed. Christopher Clark and Wolfram Kaiser (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 227.
42. Woodrow Wilson, “The Study of Administration,” Political Science Quarterly 2, no. 2 (June 1887): 197–222, http://www.iupui.edu/~spea1/V502/Orosz/Units/Sections/u1s5/Woodrow_Wilson_Study_of_Administration_1887_jstor.pdf.