49 BC
North African King Juba I supports Pompey’s ill-fated power play against Julius Caesar. Rome is outraged – but senators pick up where Pompey left off, and assassinate Caesar.
25 BC–AD 23
Rome gets a toehold in Mauretania with farms, cities and art, thanks to Juba II. He expands Volubilis into a metropolis of 20,000 residents, including a sizeable Jewish Berber community.
200–429
Vandals and Visigoths take turns forcing one another out of Spain and onto the shores of Morocco, until local Rif warriors convince them to bother the Algerians instead.
533
Justinian ousts the last Vandals from Morocco, but his grand plans to extend the Holy Roman Empire are soon reduced to a modest presence in Essaouira, Tangier and Salé.
662–682
Arabs invade the Maghreb under Umayyad Uqba bin Nafi, introducing Islam to the area. Berber warriors eventually boot out the Umayyads, but decide to keep the Quran.
711
Northern Morocco and most of Spain come under Umayyad control, and Berbers are strategically settled throughout Andalucia.
788–829
Islam takes root in Morocco under Idriss I and Idriss II, who make Fez the epitome of Islamic art, architecture and scholarship and the capital of their Idrissid empire.
8th century
Through shared convictions and prudent alliances, Arab caliphates control an area that extends across the Mediterranean and well into Europe, just 320km shy of Paris.
1062
With the savvy Zeinab as his wife and chief counsel, Berber leader Youssef ben Tachfine founds Marrakesh as a launching pad for Almoravid conquests of North Africa and Europe.
1069
The Almoravids take Fez by force and promptly begin remodelling the place, installing mills and lush gardens and cleaning up the city’s act with running water and hammams.
1082
Almoravid control stretches south to Ghana and Timbuktu, east to Algiers, and north from Lisbon to Spain’s Ebro River, near Barcelona.
1121–30
Almohad spiritual leader Mohammed ibn Tumart loudly condemns Almoravid indulgence in music and wine, but also champions scientific reasoning and political organisation based on a written constitution.
1147
The Almohads finally defeat the Almoravids and destroy Marrakesh after a two-year siege, paving the way for Yacoub el-Mansour and his architects to outdo the Almoravids with an all-new Marrakesh.
1199
A vast swath of prime Mediterranean commercial real estate from Tripoli to Spain is consolidated under Almohad control.
1276
Winds of change blow in from the Atlas with the Zenata Berbers, who oust the Almohads and establish the Merenid dynasty with strategic military manoeuvres and even more strategic marriages.
1324–52
Tangier-born adventurer Ibn Battuta picks up where Marco Polo left off, travelling from Mali to Sumatra and Mongolia and publishing Rihla – an inspired though not entirely reliable travel guide.
1348
Bubonic plague strikes Mediterranean North Africa; Merenid alliances and kingdoms crumble. Rule of law is left to survivors and opportunists to enforce, with disastrous consequences.
1377
At Kairaouine University in Fez, Ibn Khaldun examines Middle Eastern history in his groundbreaking Muqaddimah, explaining how religious propaganda, taxation and revisionist history make and break states.
1415
In search of gold and the fabled kingdom of Prester John (location of the Fountain of Youth) Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator begins his conquests of Moroccan seaports.
1480–92
Ferdinand and Isabella conquer Spain, and the persecution of Muslims and Jews escalates.
1497–1505
Moroccan ports are occupied by English, Portuguese and Spanish forces and sundry pirates, from Mediterranean Melilla to Agadir on the Atlantic coast.
1498
Church Inquisitors present European Muslims and Jews with a choice: conversion and persecution; or torture and death. Many choose neither of these, and escape to Morocco.
1525
Like a blast of scorching desert wind, the Beni Saad Berbers blow back European and Ottoman encroachment in Morocco, and establish a new Saadian dynasty in Marrakesh.
1578
The Saadians fight both alongside and against Portugal at the Battle of Three Kings, ending with 8000 dead, a scant 100 survivors and the decimation of Portugal’s ruling class.
1591
With 4000 European mercenaries, Ahmed al-Mansour ed-Dahbi crosses the Sahara and defeats a 40,000-strong army for control of the fabled desert caravan destination of Timbuktu.
1610–14
Oxford graduate and erstwhile lawyer Henry Mainwaring founds the Masmouda Pirates Republic near Rabat, pillaging Canadian cod, French salt-fish and Portuguese wine. He is later elected to Britain’s parliament.
1659–66
The Alawites end years of civil war, and even strike an uneasy peace with the Barbary pirates controlling Rabati ports.
1662
Portugal gives Tangier to the British as a wedding present for Charles II. After a lengthy siege, it is eventually returned to Moroccan control in 1684.
1672
The Alawite Moulay Ismail takes the throne. One of the greatest Moroccan sultans, he rules for 55 years and the Alawite succession lasts to the present day.
18th century
The Alawites rebuild the ancient desert trading outpost of Sijilmassa, only to lose control of it to Aït Atta Berber warriors, who raze the town. Only two not-so-triumphal arches remain.
1757–90
Sidi Mohammed III makes a strategic move to the coast, to rebuild Essaouira and regain control over Atlantic ports. Inland imperial cities of Fez and Meknès slip into decline.
1767–1836
Cash-strapped Morocco makes extraordinary concessions to trading partners, granting Denmark trade monopolies in Agadir and Safi, and France and the US license to trade in Morocco for a nominal fee.
1777
A century after the English leave Tangier a royal wreck, Morocco gets revenge and becomes the first country to recognise the breakaway British colony calling itself the United States of America.
1830
France seizes the Algerian coast, increasing pressure on the Moroccan sultan to cede power in exchange for mafia-style protection, along Morocco’s coasts, from the advancing Ottomans.
1860
If at first you don’t succeed, try for seven centuries: Spain takes control of a swath of northern Morocco reaching into the Rif.
1880
France, Britain, Spain and the US meet in Madrid and agree that Morocco can retain nominal control over its territory – after granting themselves tax-free business licenses and duty-free shopping.
1906
The controversial Act of Algeciras divvies up North Africa among European powers like a Pastilla (pigeon pie), but Germany isn’t invited – a slight that exacerbates tensions among European powers.
1912
The Treaty of Fez hands Morocco to the French protectorate, which mostly protects French business interests at Moroccan taxpayer expense with the ruthless assistance of Berber warlord Pasha el-Glaoui.
1921–26
Under the command of Abd el-Krim, Berber leaders rebel against Spanish rule of the Rif, and Spain loses its foothold in the mountains.
1942
In defiance of Vichy France, Casablanca hosts American forces staging the Allied North African campaign. This move yields US support for Moroccan independence and the classic Humphrey Bogart film Casablanca.
1943–45
When the Allies struggle in Italy, US General Patton calls in the Goums, Morocco’s elite force of mountain warriors. With daggers and night-time attacks, they advance the Allies in Tuscany.
1944–53
Moroccan nationalists deman
d independence from France with increasing impatience. Sultan Mohammed V is inclined to agree, and is exiled to Madagascar by the protectorate for the crime of independent thought.
1955–56
Morocco successfully negotiates its independence from France, Spain cedes control over most of its colonial claims within Morocco, and exiled nationalist Mohammed V returns as king of independent Morocco.
1961
When Mohammed V dies suddenly, Hassan II becomes king. He transforms Morocco into a constitutional monarchy in 1962, but the ‘Years of Lead’ deal heavy punishments for dissent.
1975
The UN concludes that the Western Sahara is independent, but Hassan II concludes otherwise, ordering the Green March to enforce Morocco’s claims to the region and its phosphate reserves.
1981
After the Casablanca Uprising, the military rounds up dissenters and unionists nationwide. But demands for political reforms increase, and many political prisoners are later exonerated.
1984
Morocco leaves the Organisation of African States (now the African Union) in protest against the admission of Saharawi representatives. It finally asks to rejoin in 2016.
1994
Years of poor relations between Morocco and Algeria, primarily over the Western Sahara issue, lead to the permanent closure of the border between the two countries.
1999
Soon after initiating a commission to investigate abuses of power under his own rule, Hassan II dies. All hail Mohammed VI, and hope for a constitutional monarchy.
2002–07
Historic reforms initiated under Mohammed VI include regular parliamentary and municipal elections across Morocco, plus the Mudawanna legal code offering unprecedented protection for women.
2004–05
Equity and Reconciliation Commission televises testimonies of the victims of Moroccan human-rights abuses during the ‘Years of Lead’; it becomes the most watched in Moroccan TV history.
2004
Morocco signs free-trade agreements with the EU and the US, and gains status as a non-NATO ally.
2006
Morocco proposes ‘special autonomy’ for the Western Sahara, and holds the first direct talks with Polisario in seven years – which end in a stalemate.
2011
Pro-democracy revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt inspire Morocco’s February 20 Movement; in response the king announces limited constitutional reform, passed by national referendum.
2016
Elections in October see the ruling moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD) increase their representation in parliament as well as providing Morocco's prime minister.
A Day in the Life of Morocco
For travellers Morocco can be about haggling for carpets, romantic dreams of sunsets over the Sahara, dodging snake charmers in Marrakesh and chasing urban legends about decadent Tangier. It certainly makes for an exciting picture, but what is it like for Moroccans? Taking some time to explore the major themes in Moroccan society and daily life will enrich anyone's visit to this culturally fruitful country.
Berber Dialects
Berber (Amazigh) in Morocco has three main dialects: Tarifit (Riffian Berber), Tamazight (Atlas Berber) and Tashelhit (western Berber).
Language & Identity
Morocco's original inhabitants were Berber, but the arrival of Arabs with the introduction of Islam has, over the centuries, mixed and remixed the two populations to a point where the line between Arab and Berber is frequently rather blurred. However, culturally there has frequently been a clear demarcation between speakers of Arabic (in its Moroccan form known as Darija) and Berber languages (known as Amazigh).
Arab speakers, personified in the Alawite dynasty that has ruled Morocco since the 17th century, have traditionally held the upper hand, despite speakers of Berber languages often holding a demographic majority. This position was institutionalised by the French in the 1930s when they passed laws to discriminate against Berbers. For much of the 20th century it was illegal to even register many traditional Berber names at birth, and Berber education was banned.
In 21st-century Morocco, Berber culture is having something of a renaissance. In 2011 the constitution was revised to make Amazigh an official national language. The effects of this are most immediately visible by the new Amazigh signage that adorns government buildings (and, increasingly, road signs) along with Arabic and French. Berber education, now formally encouraged, still lags behind in quality due to poor training and facilities, although it's still early days in a renaissance in national identity for a culture whose roots are so deep in Moroccan culture.
The rise of Berber is reflected in the relative fall from grace of French, the language of Morocco's colonial past. French is no longer listed as an official state language, though it remains a language of much business and the ability to speak it is frequently perceived as a marker of social status. In higher education today, however, many lessons are taught in English; some argue that French should ultimately be done away with altogether, and English tuition encouraged to increase Morocco's competitiveness in a global economy.
Catch Moroccan Arabic jokes you might otherwise miss with Humour and Moroccan Culture, a treasury of Moroccan wit in translation, collected by American expat Mathew Helmke.
Social Norms
Family Values
Family life remains at the heart of much of Moroccan life, and while individuals may have ambitions and ideas of their own, their aspirations are often tied in some way to family – a much-admired trait in Morocco. Success for the individual is seen as success for the family as a whole. Even major status symbols such as cars or satellite TVs may be valued less as prized possessions than as commodities benefiting the entire family. This is beginning to change, as the emerging middle class represents moves out of large family homes and into smaller apartments in the suburbs, where common property is not such a given. But family connections remain paramount. Even as Morocco's economy has grown, remittances from Moroccans living in Spain and France to family back home represent as much as 7% of GDP.
Since family is a focal point for Moroccans, expect related questions to come up in the course of conversation: Where is your family (the idea of holidaying without your family can be anathema)? Are you married, and do you have children? If not, why not? These lines of enquiry can seem a little forward, but are a roundabout way of finding out who you are and what interests you. Questions about where you work or what you do in your spare time are odd ice-breakers, since what you do for a living or a hobby says less about you than what you do for your family.
For a millennia-old civilisation, Morocco looks young. Half the population is under 25, almost a third is under 15, and just 4% is over 65.
MOROCCAN SOCIAL GRACES
Many visitors are surprised at how quickly friendships can be formed in Morocco, and are often a little suspicious. True, carpet-sellers aren’t after your friendship when they offer you tea, but notice how Moroccans behave with one another, and you’ll see that friendly overtures are more than a mere contrivance. People you meet in passing are likely to remember you and greet you warmly the next day, and it’s considered polite to stop and ask how they’re doing. Greetings among friends can last 10 minutes, as each person enquires after the other’s happiness, well-being and family.
Moroccans are generous with their time, and extend courtesies that might seem to you like impositions, from walking you to your next destination to inviting you home for lunch. To show your appreciation, stop by the next day to say hello, and be sure to compliment the cook.
Education & Economy
One of the most important indicators of social status in Morocco is education. As a whole, the country has an adult literacy rate of 67%, with slightly more men than women being literate. The disparity is heightened in poorer rural areas. Here, three-quarters of women cannot read or write and less than 50% of first-graders complete primary school. Schooling to age 14 is now officia
lly mandated, and local initiatives are slowly improving opportunities for education in the Moroccan countryside.
For vulnerable rural families, just getting the children fed can be difficult, let alone getting them to school. Around a quarter of Moroccans are judged to live in near or absolute poverty, and suffer from food insecurity (living in fear of hunger). Under-employment often means that a steady income is a rarity, and 35% of the average Moroccan income covers basic foodstuffs. Only 10% of Moroccans can afford imported foods at the supermarket, let alone eating at restaurants. Although the Moroccan economy has grown well in the 21st century, and Morocco has a burgeoning middle class, its benefits have not always been spread equally: improvements are needed in education to match the growth of Morocco's service industry, which in recent years has even overtaken agriculture for its contribution to GDP.
Frustratingly for many Moroccans, getting ahead can still be a case of who you know as much as what you know. Morocco rates low on Transparency International's corruption perception index, and most Moroccan families at some time will have butted up against the concept of wasta, the need to have a well-connected middleman to get a job or access a service. This is particularly frustrating for an increasingly educated youth suffering high levels of unemployment, who demand a more meritocratic society.
The Majlis, Morocco's lower parliament, has 60 seats (of 395) reserved for women. On regional councils (which are directly elected), one-third of seats are reserved for women.
Shifting Gender Roles
Morocco is a male-dominated society, particularly in the public sphere. Take one look at the people nursing a coffee all afternoon in a pavement cafe and you might even ask, where are all the women? However, significant progress is being made on women's rights, and the push for change has been led from the ground up, with women's groups creating a singular brand of Islamic feminism to affect change.
Two decades ago most of the people you’d see out and about, going to school, socialising and conducting business in Morocco would have been men. Women were occupied with less high-profile work, particularly in rural areas, such as animal husbandry, farming, childcare, and fetching water and firewood. Initiatives to eliminate female illiteracy have given girls a better start in life, and positive social pressure has greatly reduced the once-common practice of hiring girls under 14 years of age as domestic workers. Women now represent nearly a third of Morocco’s formal workforce, forming their own industrial unions, agricultural cooperatives and artisans’ collectives. Over 40% of university graduates today are women.
Lonely Planet Morocco Page 84