34. Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō, 499; Hara, Meijiki kokudo bōeishi, 8.
35. Kuwada, “Nisshin sensō,” 13.
36. Kurono, Daigaku, 59, 61–65; Endō, Kindai Nihon guntai kyōiku, 92, 98–99; Kumagai Mikahisa, Nihongun no jinteki seidō, 58–59; Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 52–53.
37. Presseisen, Before Aggression, 104–105; Kurono, Daigaku, 39–41; Kumagai Tadasu, Kisō chishiki, 31.
38. Presseisen, Before Aggression, 112.
39. Kumagai Tadasu, Kisō chishiki, 65–66. The surge in employing foreign military professionals occurred between 1872 and 1877 when the Japanese hired French personnel exclusively; twenty-five in 1872, twenty-four in 1873, thirty-seven in 1874, forty-three in 1875, thirty-eight in 1876, thirty in 1876, and thirteen in 1877; ibid., 74–75. Japanese officers regarded the French army superior to the German in artillery, musketry, and engineering technical instruction and veterinary sciences while Germany was preeminent in medicine and accounting. Ibid., 67.
40. Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 94; Kurono, Daigaku, 76–77. Meckel’s views reflected a growing trend in mainstream European military thought to emphasize morale as the key ingredient on the battlefield. See Robert A. Doughty, Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 25–27; and Eric Dorn Brose, The Kaiser’s Army: The Politics of Military Technology in Germany during the Machine Age, 1870–1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 70–74.
41. Kurono, Daigaku, 75; Kumagai Mikahisa, “Kyūrikukaigun shōkō no senbetsu,” 63.
42. Endō, Guntai kyōiku, 60–62.
43. Presseisen, Before Aggression, 125–126, 148.
44. Ōe Shinobu, Shōwa no rekishi [A history of the Shōwa era] 3, Tennō no guntai [The emperor’s army] (Shogakkan, 1982), 95; Kurono, Daigaku, 61–66; Kumagai Mikahisa, “Kyūrikukaigun shōkō no senbetsu,” 63; Yamaguchi Muneyuki, Rikugun to kaigun—rikukaigun shōkōshū no kenkyū [The army and the navy—research on army and navy officers] (Kiyōbundo shuppan kabushiki kaisha, 2000), 16–22.
45. Nishioka, “Kanbu kyōiku seidō no sōsetsu to hatten,” 70; Yamada Ichirō, “Nisshin sensō ni okeru iryō—eisei,” in Okumura Fusao and Kuwada Etsu, eds., Kindai Nihon sensōshi [A history of modern Japan’s wars] vol. 1, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō [The Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars] (Dōdai keizai kodankai, 1995), 233.
46. Kumagai Tadasu, Kisō chishiki, 218; Itō Takashi and Momose Takaji, eds., Jiten Shōwa senzenki no Nihon seidō to jittai [Dictionary of Japan’s prewar Shōwa period system and essence] (Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 1990), 319.
47. Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 95; Kumagai Tadasu, Kisō chishiki, 80–81.
48. Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 112.
49. Kurono, Daigaku, 45–46; see also Kurono, Kaikaku, 70–71. The 1874 regulation as revised in 1881 stipulated the wartime service criterion.
50. Kurono, Kaikaku, 56–57; Presseisen, Before Aggression, 117–119.
51. Presseisen, Before Aggression, 117; Kurono, Kaikaku, 58; Stewart Lone, Army, Empire, and Politics in Meiji Japan (London: St. Martin’s, 2000), 16, 19; Hara, Meijiki kokudo bōeishi, 154.
52. Presseisen, Before Aggression, 117–118; Kurono, Kaikaku, 71.
53. Kurono, Kaikaku, 73; Hata, Tōsuiken, 113.
54. Kurono, Kaikaku, 74–75.
55. Matsushita, Meiji no guntai, 50–51.
56. Endō, Guntai kyōikushi kenkyū, 59, 64; Kurono, Daigaku, 45–46; Tanaka, Rikugun jinji seidō gaisetsu, zenkan, 80 RO-1H, 181.
57. Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 41.
58. Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 52.
59. Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 490–492; Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 45.
60. Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 46–47.
61. Ibid.; Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 75–76.
62. Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 43, 45, 47–52; Ōe Shinobu, Gozen kaigi [The imperial conferences] (Chūkō shinsho, 1991), 139–140.
63. Fujiwara, Gunjishi, 77. In 1889, of forty-two general officers, sixteen were from Chōshū (Yamagata’s clique) and eight from Satsuma (Ōyama’s clique), or 57 percent of the total. Of twenty navy admirals, one was from Chōshū and nine from Satsuma. Hata, Tōsuiken, 114.
64. Endō, Guntai kyōiku, 109; Kumaga, Kisō chishiki, 109; Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 473–474. The figures do not total 100 percent because of rounding. The percentage of conscripts from agriculture was 81.5 in 1882, 80.8 in 1884, and 79.5 in 1888. The percentage distribution of labor in agriculture was 71.2 in 1882, 67.9 in 1890, 65 in 1900, 64.3 in 1910, 53.6 in 1920, 49.4 in 1930, and 44 in 1940.
65. Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 468–469; Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 119.
66. Harada, Kokumingun no shinwa, 53–60.
67. Kumagai Tadasu, Kisō chishiki, 74–75, 122; Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 474.
68. Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 467–469.
69. Harada, Kokumingun, 56, 58; Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 38.
70. Katō, Chōheisei to Kindai Nihon, 46–48; Kumagai Tadasu, Kisō chishiki, 120–121.
71. Rikusen gakkai, Kindai sensōshi gaisetsu, 6, 33; Kumagai Tadasu, Kisō chishiki, 120, 139; Iguchi Kazuki, Nichi-Ro sensō no jidai [The Russo-Japanese war era] (Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 1998), 22; Kawashima [?], “Gundōin no seidō to jissai” [The military mobilization system and its reality], Bōeicho bōei senshibu kenkyū shiryō 95 RO-4H, mimeo, 1980, 12, 15.
72. IchinoseToshiya, Meiji,Taishō, Shōwa guntai manyūaru [Military pamphlets of the Meiji, Taishō, and Shōwa periods] (Kōbunsha, 2004), 81; Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 482; Kumagai Tadasu, Teikoku rikukaigun, 251–253; Toshio Iritani, Group Psychology of the Japanese in Wartime (London: Kegan Paul, 1991), 98.
Chapter 5. To Asia: The Sino-Japanese War
1. Since the 1870s Yamagata had occupied a succession of key posts in the army and civil government and other ministerial-level posts; war minister (1873–1874, 1874–1878) and concurrently chief general staff bureau (1874–1876), chief of the general staff (1878–1882), home minister and concurrently chief of staff (1883–1885), kangun (1887–1889), and prime minister (1889–1891, 1898–1900).
2. Matsushita, Nihon kokubō no higeki [The tragedy of Japan’s national defense] (Fūyō shobō, 1975), 34–36.
3. Kurono, Kaikaku, 41–43.
4. Yamagata Aritomo, “Gunji ikensho” [Opinions on the military] in Guntai heishi, 299–306; Kuwada, “Nisshin sensō,” 10–11.
5. Lone, Army, Empire, 22–23; Fujiwara, Gunjishi, 68.
6. Gordon, Modern History of Japan, 91; Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 461; Ōe, Sanbō, 47; Kurono, Daigaku, 45–47; Presseisen, Before Aggression, 118–119.
7. Fujiwara, Gunjishi, 79; Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 128–130.
8. Ōe, Sanbō, 50. In August 1892 the emperor dissolved the Diet as part of Itō’s plan to elect pro-government politicians who would pass the cabinet’s legislative program. Massive police interference and violence marred the second Diet election campaign of 1892, but the opposition parties still returned with a majority of seats.
9. Hara, Meijiki kokudo bōeishi, 156, 195; Saitō Seiji, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku [Military strategy for the Sino-Japanese war] (Fūyō shobō, 2003), 25, 138–139. A narrow-gauge rail needed 75–76 cars to transport a division whereas a standard-gauge rail required about half that number.
10. Presseisen, Before Aggression, 122; Hara, Meijiki kokudo bōeishi, 251; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 24–25.
11. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 20–25; Kyū sanbō honbu hensan [Former headquarters general staff], eds., Nisshin sensō [The Sino-Japanese war] (Tokuma shoten, 1995), 425.
12. Yui, “Meiji shoki no kengun kōsō,” 473–474; Nobutaka Ike, “War and Modernization,” in Robert E. Ward, ed., Political Development in Modern Japan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968), 196. On the question of literacy, see Richard Rubinger, “Who Can’t Read and Write: Illiteracy in Meiji Japan,” Monumen
ta Nipponica, 55:2 (2000), 163–198; and P. F. Kornicki, “Literacy Revisited: Some Reflections on Richard Rubinger’s Findings,” Monumenta Nipponica, 56:3 (2001), 381–395.
13. Harada Keiichi, Shirizū Nihon kingendaishi [The history of Japanese modern and contemporary history] 3, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō [The Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars] (Iwanami shinsho, 2007), 182–183.
14. YoshidaYutaka, Nihon no guntai, 100, 103, 114; Kumagai Mikahisa, “Nihongun no jinji,” 116.
15. Ichinose Toshiya, Meiji, Taishō, Shōwa guntai manyuaru, 37, 48.
16. Heiyama, “Nihon rikugun sakusenjō no yōkyō,” 85 RO-2H, 7, 11, 33; Lone, Army, Empire, 28–29; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 32.
17. Rikusen gakkai, ed., Kindai sensōshi gaisetsu, 22;Yoshida, Nihon no guntai, 183.
18. Harada, Kokumin no shinwa, 125, 141, 153.
19. Hackett, Yamagata, 138; Harada, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 27.
20. Kuwada, “Nisshin sensō mae,” 16; Hackett, Yamagata, 138.
21. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 17; Presseisen, Before Aggression, 133; Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 110; KumagaiTadasu, Kisō chishiki, 225. Meiji’s first appearance in a naval uniform came in 1905 after the navy’s victory over the Russian fleet in the Tsushima Strait. Yoshida, Nihon no guntai, 36.
22. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 18, 29, 32; Hara Takeshi, “Nisshin sensō ni okeru hondo bōei” [Homeland defense during the Sino-Japanese war], Gunji shigaku, 30:3 (December 1994), 36. The army had partially mobilized its reserves in 1882 in response to an outbreak of anti-Japanese violence in Korea and again in 1885 for field exercises.
23. Endō, Kindai Nihon guntai kyōiku, 99; Rikusen gakkai, ed., Kindai sensōshi gaisetsu, 22. The original understrength division became the 7th Division, based in Hokkaidō beginning in 1894 although not formally reorganized until after the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).
24. Harada, Kokumingun no shinwa, 52. A total of 74,880 draft resisters or deserters were recorded during the period.
25. Endō, Kindai Nihon guntai kyōiku, 61, 99–102.
26. Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 53–55; Toyama Saburō, Nihon kaigunshi [A history of the Japanese navy] (Kyōikusha, 1980), 46.
27. Kurono, Daigaku, 82; Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 61–63; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 34.
28. Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 63; Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 52; Matsushita, Meiji no guntai, 96.
29. Kurono, Teikoku kokubō, 29; Kuwada Etsu, “Taigai rikugun gunbi no kochō” [Exaggerated army preparations for overseas (operations)], in Okumura and Kuwada, eds., Kindai Nihon sensōshi, 151–152.
30. Hara Takeshi, “Nisshin sensō ni okeru hondo bōei,” 35–37; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 39.
31. Kurono, Dai Nihon teikoku, 40; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 36–37.
32. Kuwada, “Taigai rikugun gunbi no kochō,” 152; Kurono, Dai Nihon teikoku, 40; Kurono, Daigaku, 88.
33. Michael A. Barnhart, Japan and the World since 1868 (London: Edward Arnold, 1995), 15; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 52.
34. Mutsu Munemitsu, Kekkenroku: A Diplomatic Record of the Sino-Japanese War, 1894–1895, trans. Gordon Berger (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 7, 258–259 n 10; Fujimura Michio, Nisshin sensō [The Sino-Japanese war] (Iwanami shinsho, 1973), 66–67.
35. Hackett, Yamagata, 160–161; Stewart Lone, Japan’s First Modern War: Army and Society in the Conflict with China, 1894–95 (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1994), 26–27.
36. Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 63, 76–77.
37. Toyama, Nihon kaigunshi, 69–70; Kurono, Daigaku, 90–91.
38. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 58; Kurono, Dai Nihon teikoku, 40–41.
39. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 63, 77 n 62; Charles J. Schencking, MakingWaves: Politics, Propaganda, and the Emergence of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868–1922 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005), 91–92.
40. Harada Keiichi, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 70; Kurono, Daigaku, 89.
41. Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 81; Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 139–140.
42. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 173; Harada, Nisshin Ni-Ro sensō, 70; Morimatsu, Daihon’ei, 76–77, 79; Lone, Japan’s First Modern War, 32–33.
43. Hara, “Nisshin sensō ni okeru hondo bōei,” 40–42; Kyū sanbō honbu hensan, eds., Nisshin sensō, 422–423; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 223.
44. Ōe Shinobu, Nichi-Ro sensō gunjishiteki kenkyū [A military history study of the Russo-Japanese war] (Iwanami shoten, 1976), 6–7; Kawashima, “Gundōin no seidō to jissai,” 95 RO-4H, 139; Ōe Shinobu, Nichi-Ro sensō to Nihon guntai [The Russo-Japanese war and the Japanese military] (Rippū shoten, 1987), 261. The exceptions were Maj. Gen. Nozu Michitsura, commander 5th Division and subsequently commander 2d Army, and his successor as division commander, Maj. Gen. Mutsu Yasukata.
45. Kyū sanbō honbu hensan, Nisshin sensō, 155.
46. Rikusen gakkai, Kindai sensōshi gaisetsu, 25.
47. Harada, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 81.
48. Kuwada, “Nisshin sensō ni okeru yusō-hokyū,” in Okumura and Kuwada, eds., Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 251–252.
49. Kuwada, “Nisshin sensō,” 5; Kyū sanbō honbu hensan, Nisshin sensō, 425, 401. To lift one division required about 65,000 tons of shipping, roughly fifty vessels.
50. Kyū sanbō honbu hensan, Nisshin sensō, 400–402.
51. Harada, Nisshin Nichi-Ro, 77–80.
52. Kuwada, “Nisshin sensō,” 6.
53. Ibid., 252.
54. Yamamoto, Shōhai no kōzō, 33.
55. Ibid., 239;Yamada, “Nisshin sensō ni okeru iryō-eisei,” 235, 248.
56. Endō, Kindai Nihon guntai kyōiku, 104–106; Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 74.
57. Presseisen, Before Aggression, 142; Ōe, Nichi-Ro sensō Nihon guntai, 57. Thirty-eight civilians attached to the army were also killed.
58. Hata, Nihonjin no horyo, vol. 1, 7–9. Hata believes this was the genesis of the infamous Senjinkun (code of battlefield conduct) of 1941.
59. Mutsu, Kekkenroku, 73; Harada, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 76.
60. Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 145–146; Lone, First Modern War, 156–157; Fujimura, Nisshin sensō, 132–133.
61. Lone, Army, Empire, 31.
62. Ōe Shinobu, Heishitachi no Nichi-Ro sensō [The soldiers of the Russo-Japanese war] (Asahi sensho, 1988), 58; Hara Takeshi, “Nichi-Ro sensō no eikyō” [Legacies of the Russo-Japanese war], Gunji shigaku 36:3–4, (March 2001), 14; Harada, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 72–73.
63. Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 144–145, 146, but see also the contradictory figures in Lone, First Modern War, 152–153.
64. Lone, First Modern War, 98–99; Harada, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 158–163.
65. Kyū sanbō honbu hensan, Nisshin sensō, 296.
66. Lone, First Modern War, 40.
67. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 163.
68. Actual Japanese losses were 40 killed, 241 wounded, and 7 missing.
69. Kurono, Daigaku, 95; Lone, First Modern War, 154; Ōe, Sanbō honbu, 71; Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 164–165.
70. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 158; Kurono, Daigaku; Fujimura, Nisshin sensō, 129; Kuwada, “Nisshin sensō,” 258–259.
71. Saitō, Nisshin sensō no gunji senryaku, 163–164; Fujimura, Nisshin sensō, 129–131; Lone, First Modern War, 40–43; Kyū sanbō honbu hensan, Nisshin sensō, 307–308.
72. Kyū sanbō honbu hensan, Nisshin sensō, 296–308;Yoshida, Nihon no guntai, 50. In the Sino-Japanese War frostbite accounted for 7,226 hospital admissions, slightly over 6 percent of all patients; see Ōe, Nichi-Ro gunjiteki kenkyū, table 2-14, 170. During the Russo-Japanese war frostbite accounted for 1 percent of all hospital admissions and only 2,538 cases. Ibid., table 2-16, 172.
73. Lone, First Modern Army, 42; Harada, Nisshin Nichi-Ro sensō, 81.
74. Shumpei Okamoto, The Japanese Oligarchy and the Rus
so-Japanese War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 47–48.
75. Ōe, Nichi-Ro sensō to Nihon guntai, 45–46.
76. Hillary Conroy, The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 1868–1910 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1960), 314–318; Sumiya Misao, Nihon no reikishi, 22, Dai Nihon teikoku no shiren [The trials of the great Japanese empire] (Chūō kōron, 1966), 52.
77. Tanaka Tokihiko, “Min pi satsugai jihen” [The murder of Queen Min], in Wagamatsu Sakai, ed., Nihon seiji saiban shiroku Meiji—go (Dai ichi hōki shuppan kabushiki kaisha, 1969), 217, 221–223, 229; Conroy, The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 306–307, 310–323; Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 108–112. In November the Justice Ministry indicted Miura and forty-seven other Japanese, who ranged from top advisers to the Korean government to unemployed thugs and adventurers. The verdict, delivered the following January, declared them not guilty by virtue of insufficient evidence of criminal action.
78. Barnhart, Japan and the World, 25; Iguchi, Nichi-Ro sensō no jidai, 51, 101.
79. Conroy, The Japanese Seizure of Korea, 327; Denis and Peggy Warner, The Tide at Sunrise: A History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–1905 (New York: Charterhouse, 1974), 122–123.
80. Fujiwara, Gunjishi, 103–104; Ōe, Nichi-Ro gunjishiteki kenkyū, 9.
81. Ōe, Nichi-Ro gunjishiteki kenkyū, 10–11.
82. Kurono, Teikoku kokubō, 37; Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 69; Fujiwara, Gunjishi, 105; Iguchi, Nichi-Ro sensō no jidai, 18–20.
83. Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 72; Tanaka, Rikugun jinji seidō gaisetsu, RO 80-1H, 62–63, 66.
84. Ōe, Nichi-Ro sensō to Nihon guntai, 195; Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 72–73.
85. Fujiwara, Gunjishi, 98; Ikuda, Nihon rikugunshi, 70.
86. Fujiwara, Gunjishi, 105; Heiyama, “Nihon rikugun sakusen jō no yōkyū, 85 RO-2H, 19.
87. Ōe, Nichi-Ro sensō to Nihon guntai, 243.
88. Tobe, Gyakusetsu, 137–138; Ono Keishi, “Nisshin sensō ato keieiki no gunji shishutsu to zaisei seikaku” [The management of military expenditures and financial policies after the Sino-Japanese War], Gunji shigaku 40:2–3 December 2004), 45, 49. The navy figures are from Schencking, Making Waves, table 3, 104.
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