by Lucy Riall
82. The work of Romeo offers a very positive assessment of Cavour's achievement, but there is an important historical debate about its broader implications and problems. For a much more negative judgement see, for example, D. Mack Smith, Cavour, London, 1985; and for a critical assessment of the connubio see P. G. Camaiani, La rivoluzione moderata: rivoluzione e conservazione nell'unità d'Italia, Turin, 1978.
83. Mack Smith, Mazzini, p. 78; R. Grew, A sterner plan for Italian unity. The Italian national society in the Risorgimento, Princeton, NJ, 1963, p. 45.
84. G. Candeloro, Storia dell'Italia moderna, 4. Dalla rivoluzione nazionale all'unità, Milan, 1964, pp. 211–15.
85. Quoted in Mack Smith, Mazzini, p. 111.
86. G. E. Curàtulo, Il dissidio tra Mazzini e Garibaldi. La storia senza veli, Milan, 1928, pp. 125–8.
87. There is a detailed discussion of Mazzini's activities during this period, ibid., pp. 77–128; see also R. Sarti, Mazzini. A life for the religion of politics, Westport, CT, 1997, pp. 147–79.
88. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 28–30, 36–7.
89. 28 May 1856; see also ibid., pp. 37–8.
90. Ibid., p. x; see also pp. 38–41, 89–98.
91. G. Berti,$I democratici e l'iniziativa meridionale nel Risorgimento, Milan, 1962, pp. 539–740.
92. Curàtulo, Il dissidio, p. 154; Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 380.
93. Mordini's remark is in A. Scirocco, I democratici italiani da Sapri a Porta Pia, Naples, 1969, p. 15; see also A. Scirocco, ‘Le correnti dissidenti del Mazzinianesimo dal 1853 al 1859’, in Correnti ideali e politiche della Sinistra Italiana dal 1849 al 1861, Florence, 1978, pp. 49–69; and C. Lovett, The democratic movement in Italy, Cambridge, MA, 1982, pp. 157–86.
94. E. Dandolo, I volontari ed i bersaglieri lombardi, Turin, 1849 (London, 1851; Milan, 1860); L. C. Farini, Lo stato romano dall'anno 1815 all'anno 1850, Turin 1850–1 (London, 1851–4); C. Pisacane, Guerra combattuta in Italia negli anni 1848–49, Genoa, 1851; C. A. Vecchi, La Italia. Storie di due anni, 1848–9, Turin, 1851 (2nd edn 1856).
95. Sarti, Mazzini, pp. 175–6; Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 103–4.
96. 22 Sept. 1853 and 9 Jan. 1854, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 56, 59–60.
97. Mack Smith, Mazzini, pp. 106–7; 119.
98. Epistolario, 3, p. 62.
99. Herzen, My past and thoughts, 3, p. 77.
100. 3 Feb. 1857, in Epistolario, 3, pp. 150–1.
101. 4 March 1854, ibid., p. 66.
102. Dated 4 Aug. 1854, ibid., p. 80.
103. Ibid., Appendice 4, p. 202.
104. 25 Nov. 1851, in Scritti, 47, p. 116; 8 June 1853, ibid., 49, p. 224.
105. 24 Feb. 1854, ibid., 50, p. 282.
106. 9, 10, 13 Aug. 1854, ibid., 53, pp. 51, 59, 64.
107. Ibid., p. 64; 2 Feb. 1855, ibid., 54, p. 36.
108. For a discussion, see ibid., 52, pp. 5–6, and on the Parlamento, F. della Peruta, ‘Il giornalismo dal 1847 all'unità’, in A. Galante Garrone and F. della Peruta, La stampa italiana nel Risorgimento, Rome and Bari, 1979, pp. 484–6.
109. P. Roselli, Memorie relative alla spedizione e combattimento di Velletri avvenuto il 19 maggio 1849, Turin, 1853.
110. Curàtulo, Il dissidio, pp. 131–9; and the documents pp. 345–52. Garibaldi's letters of 28 Aug. and 2 Sept. 1854 are also in Epistolario, 3, pp. 82–3.
111. A. Scirocco, Garibaldi. Batttaglie, amori, ideali di un cittadino del mondo, Rome and Bari, 2001, pp. 205–6.
112. 1 and 26 Sept., 1854, in Scritti, 53, pp. 97, 160.
113. Mazzini's article on Olivieri is in Scritti, 51, pp. 175–85. On Olivieri, see G. Bernardi, Un patriota italiano nella repubblica Argentina. Silvino Olivieri, Bari, 1946 [1861].
114. 20 Dec. 1854, ibid., p. 297.
115. 8 Nov. 1855, in Scritti, 56, p. 44; 12 March 1856, ibid., Appendice, 5, p. 112 (part of the original letter is missing).
116. 20 May 1857, in Epistolario, 3, p. 157.
117. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 84, 90.
118. 15 June 1858, Epistolario, 3, p. 171; Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 83–4, 90; Scirocco, Garibaldi, p. 210.
119. 4 April 1854, in Cavour e l'Inghilterra. Carteggio con V. E. d'Azeglio, 1, Bologna, 1933, pp. 22–3.
120. Grew, A sterner plan, p. 117.
121. See the series of letters from Garibaldi in Dec. 1858 in Epistolario, 3, pp. 191–8; on Garibaldi's relation with the king, see D. Mack Smith, ‘Victor Emanuel and the war of 1859’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, pp. 92–3.
122. Herzen, My past and thoughts, 3, p. 77.
123. D. V. Reidy, ‘Panizzi, Gladstone, Garibaldi and the Neapolitan prisoners’, Electronic British Library Journal (eBLJ), 2005, pp. 7–12.
124. Grew, A sterner plan, p. 49.
125. 3 Feb. 1857, Epistolario, 3, p. 151.
126. 23 March 1857, ibid., p. 155.
127. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 154–5.
128. Ibid., p. 143.
129. See the report in the Northern Tribune, 1854, pp. 173–6.
130. A. Falconi, Come e quando Garibaldi scelse per sua dimora Caprera, Cagliari, 1902.
131. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 83–4, 117–18.
132. G. E. Curàtulo, Garibaldi agricoltore, Rome, 1930.
133. To Speranza von Schwartz, 17 June 1858, Epistolario, 3, p. 173; to Cuneo, 27 Nov. 1858, ibid., p. 188.
134. E. H. Carr, Michael Bakunin, London, 1937, p. 301.
135. On Roberts and White, see E. Daniels, Jessie White Mario. Risorgimento revolutionary, Athens, 1972, esp. pp. 5–10, 33; Della Torre's letter, 4 Aug. 1856, in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 364; Schwartz's letter, 24 Jan. 1858, ibid., b. 693; on all of them and Ravello, see G. E. Curàtulo, Garibaldi e le donne, Rome, 1913.
136. On the concept of ‘backstage’, see E. Goffman, The presentation of self in everyday life, London, 1969, pp. 109–40.
Chapter 5: The Garibaldi Formula
1. What follows is an attempt to contextualise the growing support for Garibaldi as part of the rapid expansion of the reading public in Europe and North America. The literature on this process is very large and increasing, although more restricted for Italy. Useful and uptodate surveys for Britain and France, which also give an idea of the very different approaches now prevailing in the two countries, are: J. Plunkett and A. King (eds), Victorian print media. A reader, Oxford, 2005; I. Haywood, The revolution in popular literature. Print, politics and the people, 1790–1860, Cambridge, 2004 (which concentrates on popular readers and radical publishers); P. Brantlinger and W. B. Thesing (eds), A companion to the Victorian novel, Oxford, 2002; and the encyclopaedic R. Chartier and H.-J. Martin (eds), Histoire de l'édition française. Vol 3. Le temps des éditeurs, du romantisme à la belle époque, Paris, 1990 edn.
2. R. D. Altick, Victorian people and ideas, New York, 1973, p. 64.
3. M. Crubellier, L'Elargissement du public’, in Chartier and Martin (eds), Histoire de l'édition française, p. 31; E. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen. The modernisation of rural France, 1875–1914, London, 1977, p. 453.
4. F. Barbier, ‘Libraires et colporteurs’, in Chartier and Martin (eds), Histoire de l'édition française, pp. 256–302.
5. See the description in Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen, pp. 452–63.
6. R. D. Altick, The English common reader. A social history of the mass reading public, 1800–1900, Chicago, IL, 1957, appendix C, pp. 394–5.
7. K. Belgum, Popularizing the nation. Audience, representation and the production of identity in Die Gartenlaube, 1853–1900, Lincoln, NB, 1998, p. 10; C. Charle, Le Siècle de la presse (1830–1939), Paris, 2004, p. 96.
8. J. Watelet, ‘La presse illustrée’, in Chartier and Martin (eds), Histoire de l'édition française, pp. 369–82; P. Anderson, The printed image and the transformation of popular culture, 1790–1860, Oxford, 1991.
9. M. Merlot, ‘Le Texte et l'image’, ibid., pp. 329–55 (see also ‘les keepsakes’, pp. 507–8); Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen, pp. 455–9. On caricature, see J. Watelet, �
��La Presse illustrée’, pp. 369–73; and R. J. Goldstein, Censorship of political caricature in nineteenth-century France, Kent, OH, and London, 1989.
10. P. di Bello, ‘The female collector: women's photographic albums in the nineteenth century’, Living Pictures, 1/2, 2001, pp. 3–20.
11. J. Plunkett, Queen Victoria. First media monarch, Oxford, 2003, pp. 244–65, 338–63; P. Burke, Eyewitnessing. The uses of images as historical evidence, London, 2001, pp. 17–28; H. K. Henisch and B. A. Henisch, The photographic experience, 1839–1914. Images and attitudes, Philadelphia, PA, 1993, pp. 244–65, 338–63. On actors, see R. Sennett, The fall of public man, London, 1986, pp. 195–205.
12. M. Lyons, ‘Les Best-sellers’, in Chartier and Martin (eds), Histoire de l'édition française, pp. 422–3; A.M. Thiesse, ‘Le Roman populaire’, ibid., pp. 509–19; Brantlinger and Thesing (eds), A companion to the Victorian novel, chs 13–15; M. Denning, Mechanic accents. Dime novels and working-class culture in America, London, 2nd edn, 1998; L. James, Fiction for the working man, 1830–1850, London, 1963.
13. S. Hazareesingh, The legend of Napoleon, London, 2004, esp. pp. 151–208; N. Petiteau, Napoléon, de la mythologie à l'histoire, Paris, 1999; R. Gildea, ‘Bonapartism’, in idem, The past in French history, New Haven, CT, and London, 1994, pp. 89–111. On the ‘memoirs tradition’ in France see P. Nora, ‘Memoirs of men of state: from Commynes to De Gaulle’, in idem (ed.), Rethinking France. Les lieux de mémoire. Vol 1, The State, Chicago, IL, 2001, esp. pp. 403–14, and below, p. 156.
14. K. J. Mays, ‘The publishing world’, in Brantlinger and Thesing (eds), A companion to the Victorian novel, p. 12.
15. R. Chartier and H.J. Martin, ‘Introduction’, in idem (eds), Histoire de l'édition française, pp. 5–6.
16. Lyons, ‘Les Best-sellers’, pp. 422–3; see also the analysis of reading tastes in mid-century Britain in J. Rose, ‘Education, literacy and the reader’, in Brantlinger and Thesing (eds), A companion to the Victorian novel, pp. 39–44.
17. H. M. Schor, ‘Gender politics and women's rights’, ibid., pp. 172–88; L. C. Roberts, ‘Children's fiction’, ibid., pp. 353–69; A. Sauvy, ‘Une Littérature pour les femmes’, in Chartier and Martin (eds), Histoire de l'édition française, pp. 496–507; J. Glénisson, ‘Le Livre pour la jeunesse’, ibid., pp. 461–95.
18. Haywood, The revolution in popular literature, pp. 139–40, 237–42; M. Taylor, Ernest Jones, Chartism and the romance of politics, 1819–1869, Oxford, 2003, pp. 137–94.
19. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen, p. 458; J. Rose, The intellectual life of the British working classes, New Haven, CT, and London, 2001.
20. J. Smith Allen, Popular French romanticism. Authors, readers, and books in the nineteenth century, Syracuse, NY, 1981, pp. 5–6.
21. B. Anderson, Imagined communities, London, 1991 edn, pp. 37–46; see also the discussion in Belgum, Popularizing the nation, pp. xvi–xx.
22. G. Eley, ‘Nations, publics and political cultures. Placing Habermas in the public sphere’, in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the public sphere, Cambridge MA, 1992, pp. 289–339.
23. M. Butler, ‘Telling it like a story’, Studies in Romanticism, 28, Fall 1989, pp. 345–64.
24. C. Molinari, ‘La guerra dei teatri da Napoleone a Victor Hugo’, in R. Alonge and G. D. Bonino, Storia del teatro moderno e contemporaneo, 2, Turin, 2000, pp. 467–511; J. McCormick, Popular theatres of nineteenth-century France, New York, 1993.
25. S. E. Wilmer, Theatre, society and the nation. Staging American identities, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 1–3.
26. M. Samuels, The spectacular past. Popular history and the novel in nineteenth-century France, Ithaca, NY, 2004, pp. 106–50.
27. Ibid., pp. 26–62; on Lemaître, see Sennett, The fall of public man, pp. 204–5.
28. Haywood, The revolution in popular literature, pp. 140–1, 172; R. McWilliam, ‘The mysteries of G. W. M. Reynolds’, in M. Chase and I. Dyck (eds), Living and Learning: Essays in honour of J. F. C. Harrison, Aldershot, 1996, pp. 182–98.
29. Although this too had roots in the eighteenth century. See John Brewer's comment about Wilkes that he ‘not only made politics commercial; he made it entertaining and sociable’, in Party ideology and popular politics at the accession of George III, Cambridge, 1976, p. 191.
30. Sennett, The fall of public man, p. 196.
31. S. Gundle, ‘Le origini della spettacolarità nella politica di massa’, in M. Ridolfi (ed.), Propaganda e comunicazione politica, Milan, 2004, esp. pp. 17–22.
32. P. Joyce, Democratic subjects. The self and the social in nineteenth-century England, Cambridge, 1994, p. 214, and for a broader discussion see ibid., pp. 147–223; see also J. Belchen and J. Epstein, ‘The nineteenth-century gentleman leader revisited’, Social History, 22/2, 1997, pp. 174–93; E. Biagini, Liberty, retrenchment and reform. Popular liberalism in the age of Gladstone, 1860–1880, Cambridge, 1992, pp. 369–425; J. Vernon, Politics and the people: a study in English popular culture, c.1815–1867, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 251–91.
33. J. R. Reed, ‘Laws, the legal world and politics’, in Brantlinger and Thesing (eds), A companion to the Victorian novel, pp. 155–71.
34. Plunkett, Queen Victoria, pp. 144–98.
35. R. Romanelli, L'Italia liberale, 1861–1900, Bologna, 1979, p. 436.
36. B. Tobia, ‘Una cultura per la nuova Italia’, in G. Sabbatucci and V. Vidotto (eds), Storia d'Italia, 2. Il nuovo stato e la società civile, Rome and Bari, 1995, pp. 427–34.
37. T. de Mauro, Storia linguistica dell'Italia unita, Rome and Bari, 1979, p. 40.
38. K. Baedeker, Italie septentrionale, Coblenz, 1861, p. xv.
39. A. Castellani, ‘Quanti erano gli italofoni nel 1861?’, Studi Linguistici Italiani, new series, 8/1, 1982, pp. 3–26. See also the discussion in D. Beales and E. F. Biagini, The Risorgimento and the unification of Italy, London, 2002 edn, pp. 74–80.
40. For the background, see R. Pasta, ‘The history of the book and publishing in eighteenth-century Italy’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 2/10, 2005, pp. 200–17.
41. L. Perini, ‘Editori e potere in Italia dalla fine del secolo xv all'unità’, in C. Vivanti (ed.), Storia d'Italia. Annali 4. Intellettuali e potere, Turin, 1981, pp. 838–46; A. Lyttelton, ‘The national question in Italy’, in M. Teich and R. Porter (eds), The national question in Europe in historical context, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 89–90.
42. M. Berengo, Intellettuali e librai nella Milano della Restaurazione, Turin, 1980; U. Carpi, Letteratura e società nella Toscana del Risorgimento. Gli intellettuali dell'Antologia, Bari, 1974. On journalists, see G. Ricuperati, ‘I giornalisti italiani fra poteri e cultura dalle origini all'unità’, in Storia d'Italia. Annali 4, pp. 1085–132.
43. P. Landi, ‘Non solo moda. Le riviste femminili a Milano (1850–1859)’, in N. del Corno and A. Porati (eds), Il giornalismo lombardo nel decennio di preparazione all'Unità, Milan, 2005, pp. 221–39; S. Franchini, Editori, lettrici e stampa di moda, Milan, 2002.
44. Tobia, ‘Una cultura’, pp. 428–32.
45. A. M. Banti, La nazione del Risorgimento. Parentela, santità e onore alle origini dell'Italia unita, Turin, 2000, pp. 37–53.
46. There is a very substantial literature on associational life in Risorgimento Italy. See M. Meriggi, ‘Società, istituzione e ceti dirigenti’, in G. Sabbatucci and V. Vidotto (eds), Storia d'Italia, 1. Le premesse dell'unità, Rome and Bari, 1994, pp. 190–217; and the special issue of Quaderni Storici, 77, 1991, ‘Elites e associazioni nell'Italia dell'Ottocento’. Two useful case studies – from different ends of Italy – are A. Signorelli, A teatro, al circolo. Socialità borghese nella Sicilia dell'Ottocento, Rome, 2000, pp. 105–209; and M. Meriggi, Milano borghese. Circoli ed élites nell'Ottocento, Venice, 1992.
47. C. Sorba, Teatri. L'Italia del melodrama nell'età del Risorgimento, Bologna, 2001; Signorelli, A teatro, pp. 9–104; on music, see S. Pivato, La storia leggera. L'uso pubblico della storia nella canzone italiana, Bologna, 2002, p
p. 7–65; and R. Monterosso, La musica nel Risorgimento, Milan, 1948.
48. F. della Peruta, ‘Il giornalismo dal 1847 all'Unità’, in A. Galante Garrone and F. della Peruta, La stampa italiana del Risorgimento, Rome and Bari, 1979, pp. 319–20, 468.
49. M. Petrusewicz, Come il meridione divenne una questione. Rappresentazioni del Sud prima e dopo il Quarantotto, Catanzaro, 1998, pp. 113–16.
50. R. Grew, A sterner plan for Italian unity. The Italian national society and the Risorgimento, Princeton, NJ, 1963, pp. 52–61.
51. Ibid., pp. 67–77.
52. Ibid., p. 104.
53. D. Kertzer, The kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara, New York, 1997.
54. Grew, A sterner plan, p. 105; for a complete description of the National Society's propaganda activities, ibid., pp. 101–23.
55. H. R. Marraro, American opinion on the unification of Italy, 1846–1861, New York, 1932, pp. 206–21.
56. Grew, A sterner plan, pp. 68, 100–1.
57. Barrett Browning's poem was written in 1848 (with an additional section on Garibaldi written in 1851); Clough's poem ‘Amours de voyage’ first appeared in the Atlantic Monthly in 1858. For a discussion of the context, see L. Riall, ‘Rappresentazioni del Quarantotto italiano nella storiografia inglese’, in R. Camurri (ed.), Memorie, protagonisti e rappresentazioni del 1848 italiano (forthcoming); on the link between their poetry and nationalism: M. Reynolds, The realms of verse, 1830–1870. English poetry in a time of nation-building, Oxford, 2001, pp. 27–48.
58. ‘Two letters to the Earl of Aberdeen on the state prosecutions of the Neapolitan government’, London, 1851; see also D. M. Schreuder, ‘Gladstone and Italian unification, 1848–1870: the making of a liberal?’, English Historical Review, 85, 1970, pp. 475–501; O. Chadwick, ‘Young Gladstone and Italy’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 30, 1979, pp. 243–59.
59. The Roman state from 1815 to 1850, 4 vols, London, 1851–4.
60. M. Isabella, ‘Italian exiles and British politics before and after 1848’, in S. Freitag (ed.), Exiles from European revolutions. Refugees in mid-Victorian England, Oxford, 2003, p. 71.