Garibaldi

by Lucy Riall

  76. On Bertani's role in 1860, see A. Galante Garrone, I radicali in Italia, 1849–1925, Milan, 1973, pp. 42–6.

  77. R. Grew, A sterner plan for Italian unity. The Italian national society in the Risorgimento, Princeton, NJ, 1963, p. 296.

  78. See the breakdown of figures, ibid., pp. 396–404; Trevelyan, The Thousand, App. K, pp. 340–1; G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the making of Italy, London, 1911, App. C, pp. 321–2. Bertani gives the subscription list for his fund in Resoconto della cassa centrale soccorso a Garibaldi, 1860, Genoa, 1860, and for the other funds in Le spedizioni per i volontari per Garibaldi, Genoa, 1861. On his work, see C. Maraldi, La spedizione dei Mille e l'opera di Agostino Bertani, Palermo, 1940.

  79. 29 May, Carlo Strada, in MRM, Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiii, n.121.

  80. 22 March, Filippo Collo Cavanna in Molazzano, MCRR, b.45, n. 26/76.

  81. L. Oliphant, Episodes in a life of adventure, Edinburgh and London, 1887, p. 174.

  82. P. Ginsborg, ‘Risorgimento rivoluzionario: mito e realtà di una guerra di popolo’, Storia e Dossier, 47, 1991, pp. 61–97.

  83. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, pp. 36–7, 321.

  84. MRM, Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiii, n. 6.

  85. 11 May, Cesare Pescetto, ibid., n. 26.

  86. 12 May, Giovanni Guarlotti in Galliate, ibid., n. 28.

  87. 11 May, Giacomo Abelli in Saluzzo, ibid., n. 31.

  88. 18 May, Filippo Torricelli in Turin, ibid., n. 33.

  89. 19 May, Romano Campagnola in Casale, ibid., n. 73.

  90. 25 May, ibid., n. 110.

  91. Demetrio Cialdini in Modena, ibid., n. 99.

  92. 10 May, C. Moreto and T. Brocchieri from Milan, ibid., n. 17.

  93. 22 Aug., Giovanni Camponovo in Coleah, ibid., cartella 13, plico xvi, n. 42.

  94. E.g. 14 May, Pontoli in Parma, ibid., cartella 12, plico xiii n. 104; 25 May, Marchetti, ibid., n. 109; 15 June, Santo Polli in Gallarate, ibid., plico xiv, n. 6; 16 June, Gaspare Finali in Turin (Camera dei Deputati), ibid., n. 14; 4 June, Giuseppe Levi in Milan, ibid., n. 133; 29 June, Antonio Sergent in Milan, ibid., n. 192.

  95. 11 and 15 May, from Giacomo Abelli, ibid., plico xiii, n. 31; plico xiv, n. 144; see also e.g. 10 May, Pietro Massa, ibid., plico xiii, n. 20; 11 May, P. Cacciò in Piacenza, ibid., n. 25; 18 May, Filippo Torricelli in Turin, ibid., n. 33; 19 May, the comitato di soccorso per la Sicilia in Brescia, ibid., n. 69.

  96. 10 June, Volpino Volpini in Tredozio, ibid., plico xiv, n. 218.

  97. 4 July, Teresa Penco, ibid., plico xv, n. 180; quoted in Trevelyan, The Thousand, p. 38.

  98. Most of these relate to Garibaldi's companion, Maria della Torre, but see the mentions in W. B. Brooke, Out with Garibaldi: or from Milazzo to Capua, London, 1860, pp. 238–9; and E. Maison, Journal d'un volontaire de Garibaldi, Paris, 1861, pp. 96–7; and the discussion in L. Guidi, ‘Patriottismo femminile e travestimenti sulla scena risorgimentale’, Studi Storici, 41/2, 2000, pp. 571–87.

  99. 14 May, Defendente Mapelli in Monza, MRM, Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiii, n. 62.

  100. 30 May, Luigi Bergeno in Saluzzo, ibid., n. 127. See also the letter of 23 May, Francesco Allegro in Oneglia, ibid., n. 98.

  101. 17 May, G. Giucciardi in Milan, ibid., n. 38.

  102. 15 June, Giuseppe Briasco in Genoa, ibid., plico xiv, n. 24.

  103. 18 June, Stefano Castiglioni in Angera, ibid., n. 33.

  104. 17 June, Salvolini in Novi, ibid., n. 15.

  105. 28 June, in Sarzana, ibid., n. 250.

  106. 7 May, Cesare Crugati in Montespluga, ibid., plico xiii, n. 13.

  107. 13 June, Pietro Gillio in Turin, ibid., plico xiv, n. 213.

  108. 13 June, Giacomo Talassano in Savona, ibid., n. 208.

  109. 21 June, Giovanni Moro, ibid., n. 67.

  110. 29 May, Angelo Pavesi, ibid., plico xiii, n. 123.

  111. 26 Sept., Stefano Canessa, ibid., Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 471.

  112. 23 May, Vincenzo Ghirardini in Cremona, ibid., Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiii, n. 100.

  113. 14 May, in Brescello, ibid., n. 66.

  114. 22 May, Enrico Ruspini in Cuneo, ibid., n. 91.

  115. 11 June, Carlo Romagnani in Lugo, ibid., plico xiv, n. 99.

  116. 1, 4, 5 and 14 June, Marco Fasolis de Salineri, ibid., n. 85, 151, 188, 190.

  117. 12 June, ibid., n. 320.

  118. 20 June, Domenico Casanova in Pinerolo, ibid., n. 49. His second letter (25 June) is published in Maraldi, La spedizione dei Mille, pp. 157–8, along with a selection of other letters begging to be allowed to volunteer.

  119. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, App. B, pp. 316–19.

  120. MRM, Bertani, cartella n.13, plichi xv–xvi; cartella 15, plico xxii.

  121. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, App. B, pp. 316–19. See the comment added to the letter of 30 May 1860, MRM, Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiii, n. 126.

  122. 23 May, Giorgio Gilette, ibid., n. 97.

  123. Ibid., plico xiv, n. 89.

  124. F. Conti, L'Italia dei democratici, Milan, 2000, p. 78.

  125. 21 June, MRM, Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiv, n. 64; 11 June, ibid., n. 99; 23 June 1860, ibid., ns. 116 and 121. These comments are instructions apparently written by Bertani to his secretaries on the back of each letter: the actual letters of rejection are missing.

  126. 13 June, Antonio Scotti in Lodi, ibid., n. 228.

  127. 31 May, Paolo Francesco Ramella in Turin, ibid., plico xiii, n. 131 (and see 12 May, ibid., n. 34).

  128. E.g. 24 May, Pietro Venchi in Robbio Lomellina, ibid., n. 106; 10 June 1860, Luigi Monari in Novara, ibid., plico xiv, n. 187.

  129. 13 June, ibid., n. 226; on Bertani's state of health, see Trevelyan, The making of Italy, p. 38.

  130. E.g. 6 May, MRM, Bertani, cartella 12, plico xiii, n. 10; 7 May, ibid., n. 12; 10 May, ibid., nn.18 and 20; 11 May, ibid., n. 25; 16 May, ibid., n. 49, 15 May, ibid., n. 59; 14 May, ibid., nn. 65 and 66; 19 May, ibid., nn. 69 and 72; 20 May, ibid., n. 79; 21 May 1860, ibid., n. 96; 20 June, ibid., plico xiv, nn. 51 and 53.

  131. 6 May, Giuseppe Redaelli in Lande St Maurizio, ibid., plico xiii, n. 10.

  132. 30 May, Achille Regard in Casale, ibid., n. 125.

  133. 12 June, Giacomo Taricchi in Chesrasco, ibid., plico xiv, n. 234.

  134. 27 June, Ottavo Ferrero, ibid., n. 246.

  135. One or two correspondents complain about the ‘lack of energy’ of the Piedmontese government: e.g. 21 May, Nob. Gio. Batt. Contarini in Milan, ibid., plico xiii, n. 96; and another, Angelo Pavesi, complains about ‘hardships of every kind’ in Pavia, 29 May, ibid., n. 123.

  136. 1 Feb. 1861, Anna Ingram in London, ibid., Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  137. M. O'Connor, The romance of Italy and the English political imagination, London, 1998, p. 90; M. C. Finn, After Chartism. Class and nation in English radical politics, 1848–74, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 206–7. The currency figures are based on calculations given by http://eh.net/hmit.

  138. J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, p. 459.

  139. According to a flyer dated 20 June, and a letter from the ‘Honorary Secretary’ dated 29 Dec. in MCRR, b.53 11/4.

  140. 19 Dec., in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  141. MCRR, b.52, 3/96.

  142. 30 Nov., in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  143. H. Marraro, American opinion on the unification of Italy, 1846–61, New York, 1932, p. 304; http://eh.net/hmit.

  144. 18 Sept., and n.d., both in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  145. These details are in Marraro, American opinion, pp. 287–95, and Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 462.

  146. N.d., in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  147. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, pp. 48–9; App. B, pp. 316–20.

  148. Marraro, American opinion, pp. 285–7.

  149. 19 Nov., in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  150. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, pp. 64–5; see also Dunne's obituary in The Times, 3 Dec. 1906.

  15
1. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, pp. 259–61.

  152. J. Fyfe (ed.), Autobiography of John McAdam (1806–1883), Edinburgh, 1980, pp. 44–5; McAdam's letter to Holyoake, 28 May, ibid., pp. 130–1.

  153. F. Boyer, ‘Souscriptions pour Garibaldi en France (1860)’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 47/1, 1960, pp. 69–74.

  154. Idem, ‘Les Volontaires français avec Garibaldi en 1860’, Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 7, 1960, pp. 126–7, 142–3; see also the same author's ‘Journalistes, volontaires et armateurs français à Gênes en 1860’, in Genova e l'impresa dei Mille, 2 vols, Rome, 1961, 2, pp. 539–50.

  155. M. Paolino, ‘Johann Philipp Becker ed il Risorgimento Italiano’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 85/2, 1998, p. 219.

  156. 2 Aug., 16 Sept. and 14 Dec., in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  157. 18 Sept., ibid.; see also John Connor's letter of 5 Oct. and Elisabeth Hodges' letter of 8 Dec., also ibid.

  158. 19 Nov., ibid.

  159. 27 Nov., in MCRR, b.53, 11/3.

  160. 27 Aug., signed ‘La Barone de Walniew’, in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 470.

  161. 10 Nov. and 25 Nov., ibid., f. 449 (the latter writer had also fought with Garibaldi in Brazil).

  162. 18 Aug., ibid.

  163. N.d., from Elisabeth Murray; 5 Nov., from John Sullivan, ibid.

  164. Quoted in Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 460.

  165. 10 Nov., in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  166. 24 Sept., ibid.

  167. On the importance of Protestantism in Britain and the USA, see G. Spini, Risorgimento e Protestanti, Naples, 1956, esp. pp. 274–365, and more generally G. Best, ‘Popular Protestantism in Victorian Britain’, in R. Robson (ed.), Ideas and institutions of Victorian Britain. Essays in honour of George Kitson Clark, London, 1967, pp. 115–42.

  168. 6 Aug., in MRM, Garibaldi, Curàtulo, f. 449.

  169. 23 Nov., ibid.

  170. 1 Nov., ibid.

  171. W.G. Clark, ‘Naples and Garibaldi’, in F. Galton (ed.), Vacation tourists and notes of travel in 1860, Cambridge, 1861, pp. 35–6 (he suggests that they were taken to visit the prisons on government orders); Forbes, The campaign, pp. 252–6; R. Mundy, HMS ‘Hannibal’ at Palermo and Naples during the Italian revolution, 1859–61, London, 1863, p. 255; A. S. Bucknell, In the tracks of the Garibaldians through Italy and Sicily, London, 1861, pp. 132–8.

  172. Best, ‘Popular Protestantism’, p. 117.

  173. Boyer, ‘Les Volontaires français’, pp. 133–5.

  174. G. J. Holyoake, Bygones worth remembering, London, 1905, pp. 244–54.

  175. Brooke, Out with Garibaldi, p. 6.

  176. Trevelyan, The making of Italy, p. 260.

  177. John McAdam had to go to considerable trouble to get them home, going out to Naples with money and borrowing more, and he was left personally ‘out of pocket’ from the whole experience. Fyfe (ed.), Autobiography, pp. 47–8, and his letters, pp. 140–9.

  178. See the correspondence in MCRR, b.53, n.11/1, 2, and 5a and b.

  179. M. Milan, ‘Opinione pubblica e antigaribaldinismo in Francia: la querelle sull'unità d'Italia (1860–1868)’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 70/2, 1983, pp. 150–4.

  180. N.d. MCRR, b.53, f. 11/52.

  181. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 460–1.

  182. O. Chadwick, A history of the Popes, 1830–1914, Oxford, 1998, p. 145.

  183. C. Clark, ‘The new Catholicism and the European culture wars’, in idem and W. Kaiser (eds), Culture wars. Secular–Catholic conflict in nineteenthcentury Europe, Cambridge, 2003, p. 21.

  184. Ibid., pp. 148–51.

  185. E. Larkin, The consolidation of the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland, 1860–70, Dublin, 1987, p. 13.

  186. G. F. H. Berkeley, The Irish battalion in the papal army of 1860, Dublin, 1929, pp. 32–9, 240–1.

  187. Larkin, The consolidation, p. 50; this is an important point, as in other respects the Irish brigade suffered great problems of morale and discipline, leading to what Larkin calls a ‘perceptible cooling’ in Irish–Roman relations: Cullen himself anticipated this, writing on 21 June that ‘[p]robably the whole affair will end up a fiasco – like some of the Crusades’. Ibid., p. 19.

  188. R. Jonas, France and the cult of the sacred heart. An epic tale for modern times, Berkeley, CA, 2000, pp. 3–5, 158–60.

  189. Clark, ‘The new Catholicism’, p. 13.

  190. Forbes, The campaign, pp. 340–1.

  191. 6 Aug., in Scritti e discorsi, 1, pp. 285–8.

  192. See L. Cole, ‘Introduction: reexamining national identity in nineteenthcentury Central Europe and Italy’, in idem (ed.), Different paths to the nation: regional and national identities in Central Europe and Italy, 1830–1870, Basingstoke, 2006, pp. 1–15.

  193. M. Schwegman, ‘In love with Garibaldi: romancing the Italian Risorgimento’, European Review of History, 12/2, 2005, pp. 371–2.

  Chapter 11: Unification

  1. 18 Oct. 1860, Epistolario, 5, p. 266.

  2. End Nov. 1860, ibid., p. 285, first published in the New York Herald, 14 Dec. 1860.

  3. 6 Nov. 1860, Epistolario, 5, p. 278, first published in Il Diritto, 17 Nov. 1860, p. 278.

  4. 30 Dec. 1860, in Epistolario, 5, p. 293.

  5. 7 Nov. 1860, ibid., p. 281.

  6. P. Pieri, Storia militare del Risorgimento, Turin, 1962, p. 733.

  7. 13 Jan. 1861, Epistolario, 6, pp. 8–9. On the comitati, see A. Galante Garrone, I radicali in Italia, 1849–1925, Milan, 1973, pp. 57–9.

  8. 30 Jan. 1861, Epistolario, 6, p. 27.

  9. 4 Feb. 1861, ibid., p. 30.

  10. 4 March 1861, ibid., p. 54.

  11. 17 March 1861, from Costantino Nigra, in D. Mack Smith (ed.), The making of Italy, 1796–1866, London, 2nd edn, 1988, pp. 366–7.

  12. See his letters in Epistolario, 6, pp. 13, 15, 29, 37.

  13. 13 March 1861, ibid., pp. 56–7.

  14. 30 March 1861, ibid., pp. 63–4. On the società operaie, see Galante Garrone, I radicali, pp. 59–61.

  15. La libera parola. Foglio estraordinario pel giorno onomastico del Generale Garibaldi, Catania, 19 March 1861.

  16. C. Pardi, Pel primo anniversario del 4 aprile. Orazione, Palermo, 1861.

  17. 25 Feb. 1861, to Flora Dorant, Epistolario, 6, p. 48.

  18. Riboli's letter is in E. Maison, Caprera. Les loisirs de Garibaldi, Paris, 1861, App., pp. 25–31. On the popularity of phrenology among radicals (in Britain), see T. M. Parssinen, ‘Popular science and society: the phrenology movement in early Victorian Britain’, Journal of Social History, 8/1, 1974, pp. 1–20.

  19. M. Paolino, ‘Johann Philipp Becker ed il Risorgimento Italiano’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 85/2, 1998, pp. 216–37; the title ‘German Garibaldi’ is Jenny Marx's. See also the correspondence between Garibaldi, Becker and Mieroslawski in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 266.

  20. J. Fyfe (ed.), Autobiography of John McAdam (1806–1883), Edinburgh, 1980, p. 63. See McAdam's letter to Garibaldi, 13 Jan. 1861, in MCRR, b.54 f. 1/8.

  21. Col. Vecchi, Garibaldi at Caprera (ed. Mrs Gaskell), London, 1862, pp. vii–xi, 22–3, 58, 94. See also the descriptions of various visitors in Riboli's letter in Maison, Caprera, App., pp. 25–6.

  22. Writing as Elpis Melena, Hundert und ein Tag auf meinem Pferde und ein Ausflug nach der Insel Maddalena, Hamburg, 1860; Garibaldi at home: a visit to the Mediterranean islands of La Maddalena and Caprera, London, 1860; Recollections of General Garibaldi; or travels from Rome to Lucerne: comprising a visit to the Mediterranean islands of La Maddalena and Caprera, London, 1861; Excursion à l'île de Caprera, Geneva, 1862. She also published a version of Garibaldi's memoirs (Garibaldi's Denkwürdigkeiten) in Hamburg in 1861.

  23. The illustrations are in ILN, 26 Jan. 1861, pp. 71 (the front page), 74–5, 79 (this edition also had a colour portrait); Vizitelly's description is in the 2 Feb. edition, pp. 105–6.

  24. Garibaldi, Arte e storia, 2 vols, Florence, 1982, 1, cat. 3.3
.11, pp. 105–6.

  25. Giuseppe Garibaldi da Caprera ad Aspromonte, 1860–61–62. Memorie storiche raccolta da Felice Venosta, Milan, n.d., pp. 4, 5, 11.

  26. Die Gartenlaube, 1866, n.2. p. 32.

  27. Maison, Caprera, p. 6, App., p. 25.

  28. C. MacGrigor, Garibaldi at home. Notes of a visit to Caprera, London, 1866, p. 39.

  29. Il tributo all'immortale Giuseppe Garibaldi o sia catechismo politico costituzionale italiano per la necessaria istruzione del popolo, Naples, 2nd edn, 1861, p. 5.

  30. Garibaldi a Caprera, Turin, 1861; Garibaldi e Caprera, Naples, 1862; Garibaldi en Caprera, Utrecht, 1861; Garibaldi et Caprera, Utrecht, 1862; Garibaldi på Caprera, Stockholm, 1862; Garibaldi auf Caprera, Leipzig, 1862. I have used the English version, see above, note 21.

  31. Vecchi, Garibaldi, pp. 7–8, 38, 43–5.

  32. Ibid., p. 2.

  33. Ibid., pp. 55, 75.

  34. Letter of 3 Jan. 1861, in Fyfe (ed.), John McAdam, p. 51.

  35. 4 Feb. 1861, Epistolario, 6, p. 29.

  36. 2 Feb. 1861, MCRR, b.47 f. 2/2; 9 April 1861, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 383 (and see Garibaldi's reply in Epistolario, 6, pp. 62–3).

  37. 28 Oct., 14 Nov., 22 and 24 Dec. 1860, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 470.

  38. 25 Dec. 1860, ibid., f. 453

  39. 6 May 1861, MCRR, b.54 f. 1/4; 2 March 1861, ibid., b.53, f. 11/9.

  40. 26 Feb. 1861, ibid., b.53, f. 57.

  41. 3 Dec. 1860, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 566.

  42. 30 Jan. and 8 Feb. 1861, ibid., f. 449.

  43. 31 Jan. 1861, in MCRR, b.53 f. 11/7 (Garibaldi's reply in Epistolario, 6, p. 65, and published in Il Diritto and L'Unità Italiana on 6 April). Ashley's letter of 9 April is in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 449.

  44. Both letters 30 Jan. 1861, ibid.

  45. C. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, 1818–1901. From nation to nationalism, Oxford, 2002, p. 245.

  46. Galante Garrone, I radicali, pp. 49–50, 56.

  47. 4 Feb. 1861, in Epistolario, 6, p. 30.

  48. Galante Garrone, I radicali, pp. 53–4, 72.

  49. L. Riall, Sicily and the unification of Italy. Liberal policy and local power, 1859–66, Oxford, 1998, pp. 123–30; A. Scirocco, Il Mezzogiorno nella crisi dell'unificazione, 1860–1, Naples, 1981.

  50. Pieri, Storia militare, pp. 734–5; F. Molfese, ‘Lo scioglimento dell'esercito meridionale garibaldino 1860–1’, Nuova Rivista Storica, 44, 1960, pp. 1–53.