by Lucy Riall
51. E. Francia,$Le baionette intelligenti. La guardia nazionale nell'Italia liberale (1848–1876), Bologna, 1999, pp. 57–86; P. Pieri, Le forze armate nella età della Destra, Milan, 1962, pp. 66–7.
52. Riall, Sicily, pp. 138–55; F. Molfese, Storia del brigantaggio dopo l'unità, Milan, 1964; J. A. Davis, Conflict and control. Law and order in nineteenthcentury Italy, London, 1988, pp. 168–86.
53. 22 Nov. 1860, to Cavour, in D. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969, p. 60.
54. 11 April 1861, in Epistolario, 6, pp. 78–9.
55. Florence MacKnight, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 566; Caroline Gifford Philippson, ibid., f. 580.
56. The Times, 23 April 1861.
57. H. d'Ideville, Journal d'un diplomate en Italie, Paris, 1871, 1, pp. 179–80, and in Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, p. 60; see also the description in Madame C. de Bunsen, In three legations. Turin, Florence, The Hague, London, 1909, pp. 136–9.
58. M. Isabella, ‘Exile and nationalism: the case of the Risorgimento’, European History Quarterly, 36/4, 2006, p. 496.
59. The speech is in Mack Smith (ed.), The making of Italy, pp. 348–52.
60. 23 April 1861.
61. Mack Smith (ed.), The making of Italy, p. 352; the full text of the debate is in Garibaldi in parlamento, 1. Dalla repubblica romana a Aspromonte, Rome, 1982, pp. 89–237.
62. J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, pp. 519–20.
63. 29 April 1861, Epistolario, 6, pp. 94–6. See also 22 April 1861, ibid., pp. 89–90.
64. 18 May 1861, ibid., pp. 104–6.
65. At least from the foreign audience in parliament, see The Times, 23 April; D'Ideville, Journal, and De Bunsen, In three legations.
66. 12 April 1861, NA, 30/22/68.
67. On this episode, about which there was considerable debate, see Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 520–4; and a recent discussion in The Times, 9 Feb. 2000.
68. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 525–6.
69. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, p. 248.
70. Galante Garrone, I radicali, pp. 64–71.
71. D. Mack Smith, ‘Constitutional monarchy, 1861–1865’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, Cavour and the Risorgimento, London, 1971, pp. 283–8; Duggan, Francesco Crispi, p. 249.
72. Most of these letters can be found in MCRR, b.50, f. 1–2; b.45, f. 26–7.
73. 23 Jan. 1862, from Leopold Comte Ribarola, ibid., b.50 f. 2/19.
74. Dec. 1861, ibid., b.47 f. 2/5.
75. N.d. (but in 1861–6 file), ibid., b.316 f. 32/5.
76. Jan. 1862, ibid., b.45 f. 26/53.
77. 17 Oct. 1861, ibid., b.52, f. 3/54 (the letter is partly destroyed).
78. G. Guerzoni, Garibaldi, 2 vols, Florence, 1882, 2, pp. 284–7.
79. G. Pécout, ‘Les Sociétés de tir dans l'Italie unifiée de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle’, Mélanges de l'Ecole Française de Rome, pp. 544–50. Garibaldi's letters to the Rifle Clubs (March and April 1862) are in in Epistolario, 7, pp. 12–13, 18, 51, 61, 63–4, 68, 77–81.
80. Ibid., pp. 19–20, 28–9, 32–7, 39–40, 44–8, 53–60, 65, 69–70, 76–8, 83–7, 89, 91–5.
81. Pécout, ‘Les Sociétés de tir’, pp. 550–1.
82. 19 May 1862, Scritti e discorsi, 2, pp. 80–1 (see also his followup letter, pp. 81–2).
83. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, p. 250.
84. Mack Smith, ‘Constitutional monarchy’, p. 288.
85. Guerzoni, Garibaldi, 2, p. 300.
86. Epistolario, 7, p. 158.
87. 16 July 1862, ibid., p. 164.
88. July 1862, ibid., pp. 289, 292–5.
89. Ibid., pp. 165–7.
90. Almost all these speeches were published in Il Diritto and are republished in Scritti e discorsi, 2, pp. 96–123.
91. These were soldiers being tried for desertion, in ACS, Tribunali militari di guerra di Palermo, Messina, Catania e Catanzaro, 1860–6, b.1.
92. 19 Aug. 1862, telegram from the prefect of Catania to the prefect of Palermo, in G. Scichilone (ed.), Documenti sulle condizioni della Sicilia dal 1860 al 1870, Rome, 1952, p. 141.
93. Riall, Sicily, pp. 162–3; Mack Smith, ‘Constitutional monarchy’, pp. 289–91.
94. The decree is in MCRR, b.668, f. 34/5.
95. Riall, Sicily, pp. 163–7.
96. A. Bertani, Scritti e discorsi, 2 vols, Florence, 1890, 2, pt 1, p. 42.
97. Galante Garrone, I radicali, pp. 72–3, 78–9.
98. Quoted in Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 259–60; on Sicily in 1863, see Riall, Sicily, pp. 167–78.
99. Guerzoni, Garibaldi, 2, p. 332; on his wounds, see E. Albanese, La ferita di Garibaldi ad Aspromonte. Diario inedito della cura, Milan, 1907.
100. ‘Io e il popolo’, 4 Sept. 1862.
101. August 1862, vol. 56, p. 833.
102. P. Gut, ‘Garibaldi et la France, 1848–1882. Naissance d'un mythe’, Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento, 74/3, 1987, pp. 309–10.
103. 1 and 5 Sept. 1862.
104. Epistolario, 7, pp. 300–2; Scritti e discorsi, 2, pp. 146–9. Il Diritto was already involved with a polemic over Garibaldi's support of those arrested at Sarnico (see ‘Garibaldi e la legge. Risposta all'opuscolo dell'Avvocato P. C. Boggio’, published as a supplement to the paper, and as a separate pamphlet), so led the controversy over Aspromonte in Italy. Garibaldi's letter was also published in The Times on 10 Sept. 1862.
105. Scritti e discorsi, 2, pp. 150–3; quoted in M. Finn, After Chartism. Class and nation in English radical politics, 1848–1874, Cambridge, 1993, p. 208. This letter was also published in Il Diritto.
106. Una voce dalle prigioni. Il fatto d'Aspromonte, Lugano, 1862, p. 7.
107. Aspromonte. Ricordi storico–militare, Turin, 1862, p. 59.
108. La verità sul fatto di Aspromonte, per un testimonio oculare, Milan, 1862, p. 55.
109. Cinque giorni in Calabria o la catastrofe d'Aspromonte per un volontario garibaldino, Palermo (?), 1862, pp. 33–4.
110. C. Bianchi, I martiri d'Aspromonte, cenni storici, Milan, 2nd edn, 1863, title page.
111. Napoleon III was widely presumed to be behind the government's action at Aspromonte.
112. F. Pyat, Lettera al Generale Garibaldi, n.d. but 1862, p. 8.
113. Garibaldi et la civilisation. La rédemption – les puissants – le Pape – mensonges de la civilisation – l'avenir, Turin, 1862, pp. 7–8.
114. Garibaldi, Arte e Storia, 2, cat. 12, nn. 12–14, pp. 67–70.
115. W. Settimelli, Garibaldi. L'album fotografico, Florence, 1982, pp. 59–63.
116. Giuseppe Garibaldi da Caprera ad Aspromonte, p. 73.
117. A. Herzen, My past and thoughts, 6 vols, London, 1924–7, 5, p. 36.
118. Civica Raccolta delle Stampe A. Bertarelli, Milan, ASM, 36–65; Arte e storia, 2, pp. 219, 229–33 (which has other examples of the same theme).
119. Both are in Epistolario, 8, pp. 66, 130 (from MCRR).
120. See e.g. MCRR, b.52, f. 3, b.47, f. 2 & b.53, f. 11. For typical examples of Garibaldi's replies see his letter to Teodorina Muller, 7 Nov. 1862, Epistolario, 7, p. 220; to the students of Utrecht, 6 Dec., ibid., p. 244; and to the surgeon Nikolai Pirogov, 6 Aug. 1863, Epistolario, 8, p. 127.
121. Christopher Wordsworth's travel journal (1863), quoted in H. W. Rudman, Italian nationalism and English letters, London, 1940, p. 318.
122. 2 Nov. 1862, in MCRR, b.52, f. 3/52.
123. 3 Sept. 1862, ibid., f. 3/55.
124. Jan. 1863, ibid., b.51, f. 1/16.
125. Ridley, Garibaldi, p. 544.
126. 25 Oct. 1862, MCRR, b.54, f. 1/22.
127. 17 Oct. 1862, ibid., f. 1/19.
128. Ibid., b.53, f. 11/30–2.
129. 4 Dec. 1862 and 15 April 1863, ibid., f. 11/39 and 52.
130. Settimelli, Garibaldi, pp. 60–1.
131. Various ‘indirizzi’ and subscriptions are in MCRR, b.51, f. 1/1–19; b.316, f. 32. Many of his replies are published in Epistolario, 7, pp. 199–200, 213–14, 245–7.
; 132. 19 Jan. 1863, ibid., 8, pp. 18–19.
133. 24 Feb. 1863, ibid., pp. 37–8.
134. Aug. 1863, ibid., pp. 128–30.
135. 1 and 2 March 1863, ibid., pp. 44–7.
136. See his letters to various priests, 11 and 15 Jan. 1863, ibid., p. 16; to Perroni Paladino [sic] and the editor of L'Aspromonte about the election of a candidate, 19 Jan., ibid., pp. 17–19; to the republican Giovanni Corrao, 1 March, ibid., p. 45; to ‘alcuni amici palermitani’, 3 Nov., ibid., p. 166; and to the socialist Saverio Friscia, 25 Dec. ibid., p. 187.
137. Quoted in N. Blakiston, ‘Garibaldi's visit to London in 1864’, unpublished paper, BL, p. 3.
138. Quoted in L. Elda Funaro, ‘Il viaggio di Garibaldi in Inghilterra e la crisi della democrazia italiana dopo l'unità’, Studi Storici, 7/1, 1966, pp. 134–5, and more generally on the attitude of the Italian government, pp. 137–40.
139. Finn, After Chartism, pp. 214–17.
140. Fyfe (ed.), John McAdam, p. 67; D. Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England: the politics of Italian enthusiasm’, in J. A. Davis and P. Ginsborg (eds), Society and politics in the age of the Risorgimento. Essays in honour of Denis Mack Smith, Cambridge, 1991, p. 194.
141. 3 April 1864, in Epistolario, 8, p. 212: it was published in The Times, 4 April, and Il Diritto & Unità Italiana, 7 April.
142. Quoted in Elda Funaro, ‘Il viaggio’, pp. 147–8.
143. According to R. McWilliam, The Tichbourne claimant: a Victorian sensation, London, forthcoming.
144. 12 April 1864.
145. Quoted in M. O'Connor, The romance of Italy and the English political imagination, London, 1998, p. 168. Her volume, along with Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 546–64, Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, pp. 184–216, and J. A. Davis, ‘Garibaldi in England,’ History Today 32, 1982, pp. 21–6, are the most detailed accounts of Garibaldi's visit to England.
146. M. Reynolds, The realms of verse. English poetry in a time of nation-building, Oxford, 2001, pp. 3–8.
147. 12 April 1864, in Elda Funaro, ‘Il viaggio’, App. p. 155.
148. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, p. 132.
149. 12 April 1864.
150. Munby's diary, 11 April 1864, in D. Hudson (ed.), Munby. Man of two worlds, London, 1972, pp. 186–7.
151. 12 April 1864.
152. Diary entry for 11 April 1864, quoted in Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, p. 191.
153. Herzen, My past and thoughts, 5, p. 32.
154. Quoted in Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, p. 137.
155. Elda Funaro, ‘Il viaggio’, p. 139; Paul Cullen to Patrick Moran, 12 April 1864, Cullen papers, Dublin diocesan archives, f. 40/4 (also in C. Barr (ed.), The correspondence of Paul Cullen, Dublin, forthcoming).
156. Ridley, Garibaldi, pp. 549–51, 555–61; O'Connor, The romance of Italy, pp. 172–4.
157. The phrase is Matthew Truesdell's, Spectacular politics. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte and the ‘Fête Impériale’, 1849–1870, Oxford, 1997.
158. E. Biagini, Liberty, retrenchment and reform. Popular liberalism in the age of Gladstone, 1860–80, Cambridge, 1992, p. 374; Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, p. 189.
159. Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, pp. 188–9; O' Connor, The romance of Italy, pp. 153–5, P. D. Gordon Pugh, Staffordshire portrait figures and allied subjects of the Victorian era, Woodbridge, 1970; R. McWilliam, ‘The theatricality of the Staffordshire figurine; Journal of Victorian Culture, 10/1, 2005, pp. 107–14. On the Garibaldi biscuit, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garibaldi_biscuit’. This British biscuit (two crackers with a currant filling) also bears a resemblance to a fruit bread, pane dei pescatori, still sold today on the Ligurian coast.
160. ‘Hyam & Co.'s leading styles for the present season’, advertising sheet, BL.
161. In M. Smith, A wreath for Garibaldi, London, 1864.
162. Quoted in Biagini, Liberty, p. 373.
163. Both on p. 3.
164. Colonel Chambers, Garibaldi and Italian Unity, London, 1864, p. 3.
165. Quoted in Finn, After Chartism, p. 221; on Princess Alexandra's arrival, see J. Plunkett, Queen Victoria. First media monarch, Oxford, 2003, pp. 51–2.
166. G. Claeys, ‘Mazzini, Kossuth and British radicalism’, Journal of British Studies, 28/3, 1989, pp. 227, 245–7.
167. J. Davis, ‘Radical clubs and London politics, 1870–1900’, in D. Feldman and G. Stedman Jones (eds), Metropolis London. Histories and representations since 1800, London, 1989, pp. 103–28; S. Shipley, Club life and socialism in mid-Victorian London, London, 1971.
168. Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, p. 186.
169. 18 April 1864, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, b.449.
170. O'Connor, The romance of Italy, pp. 152–60, 177–8; see also the comments of J. Vernon, Politics and the people, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 265–6.
171. Anon. The life of Garibaldi … Interspersed with anecdotes illustrative of his personal character. Compiled from original and authentic sources, London, 1864, pp. 4, 17, 60.
172. 12 April 1864.
173. Quoted in Finn, After Chartism, p. 218.
174. Ibid., pp. 217–24.
175. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, p. 75.
176. Blakiston, ‘Garibaldi's visit to London’, p. 5.
177. Elda Funaro, ‘Il viaggio’, pp. 145, 152.
178. Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, pp. 199–216.
179. Elda Funaro, ‘Il viaggio’, p. 155.
180. Finn, After Chartism, pp. 223–5.
181. See Catherine Hall et al., Defining the Victorian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867, Cambridge, 2000.
182. Quoted in O'Connor, The romance of Italy, p. 182.
183. H. E. Manning, The visit of Garibaldi to England. A letter to the Right Hon. Edward Cardwell, M.P., London, 1864, p. 6; see also R. J. Cooper, Three letters to the conservatives of England … on the subject of Garibaldi and Revolution, London, 1864.
184. S. Gilley, ‘The Garibaldi riots of 1862’, Historical Journal, 16/4, 1973, pp. 697–732.
185. To Myles O'Reilly, National Library of Ireland, MS 17,886; in Barr (ed.), The correspondence of Paul Cullen, forthcoming; N. Blakiston (ed.), The Roman Question, London, 1962, p. 285.
186. Quoted in Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, p. 193.
187. Hudson, (ed.), Munby, p. 187.
188. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, pp. 132–3.
189. Quoted in Ridley, Garibaldi,, pp. 558, 560.
190. MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 657.
191. Ibid., f. 656. It was also considered surprising that at Stafford House she took him to her boudoir and allowed him to smoke there: Earl of Malmesbury, Memoirs of an exminister, London, 1885, pp. 593–4.
192. 29 April, 15 and 29 June 1864, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 656; see also her letters of 31 May, 11 July, 13, 26 and 31 Aug. 1864.
193. 23 April 1864, ibid., f. 632.
194. 24 April, 2 May and 1 June 1864, ibid.
195. ‘May’, 2 May, 20 June, 4 Aug., 5 Sept. 1864, ibid.
196. 2 and 24 May 1864, ibid.; MCRR, b.54, f. 1/42 (quoted in G. Monsagrati, ‘Garibaldi e il culto vittoriano dell'eroe’, Studi Storici, 42/1, 2001, p. 176).
197. Nanette Malleim, 14 Dec. 1866, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, b.449.
198. O'Connor, The romance of Italy, pp. 154–6.
199. 24 May 1864, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 632.
200. Hudson (ed.), Munby, p. 187.
201. Mack Smith (ed.), Garibaldi, p. 133.
202. Quoted in Beales, ‘Garibaldi in England’, pp. 187–8.
203. 12 April (‘Sauvage’) and 15 May (MacKnight) 1861, both in MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 566.
204. 20 Oct. 1864, ibid., f. 632.
205. 24 April and 13 June 1864, Epistolario, 8, pp. 57, 92–3.
206. 24 April and 7 June, ibid., p. 58.
207. 3 May 1864, ibid., p. 63.
208. According to a letter she wrote to him, 9 Oct. 1864, ibid., f. 629; and see also her frantic letter t
o him of 12 May, ibid.
209. This point is also made by O'Connor, The romance of Italy, pp. 112–15.
210. 15 April 1861, MRM, Garibaldi Curàtulo, f. 566.
211. 10 April and 9 Oct. 1864, ibid., f. 629.
212. 1 and 17 June 1864, ibid., f. 657.
213. 28 April and 22 Oct. 1864, ibid., f. 656.
214. G. Curàtulo, Garibaldi e le donne, Rome, 1913, pp. 59–65; see also her letter of 14 Oct. 1862, MCRR, b.54 f. 1/17.
215. Le memorie di Garibaldi nella redazione definitiva del 1872, Bologna, 1932, p. 499.
216. E. Mana, ‘La “democrazia” italiana. Forme e linguaggi della propaganda politica tra Ottocento e Novocento’, in M. Ridolfi (ed.), Propaganda e communicazione politica, Milan, 2004, p. 149.
217. Galante Garrone, I radicali, p. 157.
Chapter 12: Culture Wars
1. J. Ridley, Garibaldi, London, 1974, pp. 566–70.
2. D. Mack Smith, ‘The king and the war of 1866’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, Cavour and the Risorgimento, London, 1971, pp. 306–32.
3. Idem (ed.), The making of Italy, 1796–1866, London, 1988 edn, p. 392.
4. Quoted in C. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, 1818–1901. From nation to nationalism, Oxford, 2002, p. 283.
5. Il Politecnico, Sept. 1866, in Mack Smith (ed.), The making of Italy, pp. 392, 395.
6. L. Riall, Sicily and the unification of Italy. Liberal policy and local power, 1859–1866, Oxford, 1998, pp. 198–221.
7. Quoted in E. Gentile, The sacralization of politics in fascist Italy, Cambridge, MA, 1996, p. 6.
8. A. Galante Garrone, I radicali in Italia, 1849–1925, Milan, 1973, pp. 82–95; Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 263–96.
9. D. Mack Smith, ‘Victor Emanuel and the occupation of Rome’, in idem, Victor Emanuel, pp. 344–5.
10. G. Verucci, L'Italia laica prima e dopo l'unità, 1848–1876, Rome and Bari, 1996 edn, p. 285.
11. D. Mack Smith, Garibaldi, London, 1957, pp. 159–60; on Lemmi, see C. Lovett, The democratic movement in Italy, 1830–1876, Cambridge, MA, 1982, pp. 177, 220.
12. Scritti e discorsi, 2, pp. 394–5, 399–401, 411. See also S. Morelli, I tre disegni di legge sulla emancipazione della donna, riforma della pubblica istruzione e circoscrizione legale del culto cattolico nella chiesa. Preceduti da un manifesto di Giuseppe Garibaldi, Florence, 1867.