by TJ Viola
They were both having a good laugh when Bruno returned with the men from their walk.
“Crystal, your questions concerning cold fusion are very perceptive,” Philip said during lunch, “and you may find my answers disturbing if you’re planning to pursue science as a career.
“In every field of endeavor there are politics, large egos, and certain protocols that must be followed. Unfortunately, Pons and Fleischmann violated certain unwritten protocols, ran into a political brick wall, and were unable to convince any other top scientists their work was valid. As a result, scientists who even hinted they were able to produce excess heat while trying to verify their results were accused of not accounting for experimental error, or worse, manipulating results. It quickly became clear anyone working on cold fusion was risking their future, so after a few years, interest and funding dried up. In fact, if you dig deeper, you’ll find that in the late 1990s and early 2000s, only scientists who were either retired or so far along in their careers that peer pressure didn’t intimidate them continued to investigate cold fusion. There are few scientists left working in this area today, and most who do fund their efforts themselves or do it ‘under the table’ or, as we used to say, ‘on the back burner’ without formal approval.”
Crystal’s curiosity was still not satisfied.
“You mentioned three factors that made it difficult for cold fusion to be accepted. Could you explain them in more detail?”
“I was just finishing my studies when the media circus took place in 1989 so I followed developments with great interest. I’ll start with scientific protocol, since that was their first mistake.
“Pons and Fleischmann allowed the university, where they worked, to announce the discovery of cold fusion at a national news conference. The acceptable way to announce a new scientific concept or breakthrough is to publish an article in a respected scientific journal. The public announcement made through the media caused many scientists to become skeptical.
“In addition, there wasn’t a peer review prior to the announcement. This was particularly critical since, in this case, fusion is a nuclear reaction, and both the inventors were chemists, not physicists.
“A third protocol that was apparently violated was the proper use of the scientific method, which calls for good experimental procedures and documentation, as well as the ability to replicate the results.
“So, that takes care of protocol, clearly a dismal performance by two seasoned and respected scientists who should have known better. Now, let’s look at politics. I previously mentioned that fusion is a nuclear reaction, and as such, nuclear physicists are the experts in that field. Well, at the time, most of the great minds and many research facilities were focused on developing a ‘hot fusion’ reactor and the government was heavily funding this work. If cold fusion turned out to be real, a significant portion of this funding would have abruptly disappeared, and some of the best-known scientists would have been discredited for not proposing cold fusion as the best way to find an unlimited source of energy. In fact, the lobbying against funding cold fusion research was so effective that even today it would be almost impossible to receive government funds. The last area I mentioned was scientific egos. All throughout history when a new scientific discovery contradicts established theory, someone’s reputation has the potential to be damaged. For example, the Copernicus theory and the work of Sir Isaac Newton to understand gravity flew right in the face of scientific and religious doctrine. You may view those as dramatic examples, but cold fusion was, and is still today, believed to be impossible, since there is no existing scientific theory that explains such a phenomenon.”
Danny was fascinated by his dad’s explanation, especially since he knew from Zeiss and Yolan that cold fusion was indeed possible.
“Dad, what if cold fusion is real and Pons and Fleischmann really did generate excess heat?”
“Then mankind has probably missed its one and only opportunity to dramatically improve life for everyone on Earth and to explore the whole Universe in earnest.”
“Well, I guess we have a major task ahead of us. Crystal, let’s get back to work.”
As they got up to leave, Crystal turned to Mrs. O’Malley, who simply smiled and nodded.
*****
It was the last week in November, and Danny and Crystal only had until the beginning of December to submit their project proposal.
“Crystal,” Danny said after a hard day of continuous study, “I think it’s time we decide how we’re going to reinvent cold fusion and start writing our proposal.”
“Agreed—if I read another article on cold fusion my mind will explode!”
They spent far into the evening developing a final list of facts that they called their
Cold Fusion Top Ten List:
-Cold fusion exists
-Palladium is the metal of choice
-Metal hydration required
-Coulomb barrier of hydrogen must be overcome
-Metal surface dislocations (imperfections) and contamination could impact results
-No theory exists to explain phenomena
-Electrochemical cell may not be required
-Current density critical
-No harmful radiation detected
-Solid-state device most desirable
Crystal was satisfied with the list except for the last statement Danny had insisted on including. “Danny, most of the research I read involved an electrolytic cell. Why would a solid-state structure be more desirable or even possible?”
Danny knew Crystal would need a logical explanation when, in truth, he just had a gut feeling.
“We need to think well beyond the results of the past since the quantity of real research is minimal after Pons and Fleishmann were discredited. We also know that the Grillions have had cold fusion energy for many centuries and have evolved the technology far beyond the level we’ve been reading about. Rolo and Bounce told us they were powered by cold fusion cells. I think we should assume those cells are miniature solid-state cells and not liquid based because of their ability to transform into most any animate or inanimate object.”
After further discussion, Crystal agreed, and the next day they started to write their science fair proposal.
*****
Mrs. Fitzgerald was about to get her revenge for the disgrace she felt when Danny walked out of her algebra classroom.
“Rejected! Why?” Danny asked, bewildered.
“If you children would have consulted me prior to submitting this ridiculous proposal, I could have saved you a lot of time and effort,” Mrs. Fitzgerald chided.
“Mrs. Fitzgerald,” Crystal said, “we spent a great deal of effort researching cold fusion and believe it’s a subject that deserves attention by the young scientists of tomorrow.”
“Well, if you know so much about cold fusion, you certainly know the concept was discredited decades ago and is regarded as Voodoo science. I will not have my science fair tainted with such nonsense!”
Both Danny and Crystal were discouraged since there wasn’t time to submit a new proposal.
“Has the science fair board also rejected our proposal?” Danny asked.
“There is no need to bother the board. It’s my responsibility to do the initial screening.”
The smirk of satisfaction on her face turned to anger as she watched Crystal pull out a science fair flyer from her computer bag.
“I believe,” Crystal said as she read the flyer, “we have the right to request a review by the science board. If two-thirds approve our proposal, then our project is accepted.”
“They have never accepted a proposal that I rejected. You would be wasting everyone’s time.”
Neither of them responded but stood motionless staring at Mrs. Fitzgerald.
“Very well, the board is scheduled to meet next Friday, and I will submit your rejected proposal at that time. I suggest you prepare a more detailed justification in your presentation. I can assure you there will be questions
—many questions.”
The week seemed to pass at a snail’s pace, but before long, Danny and Crystal were presenting their project proposal for approval. The review took place in an abandoned basement room under the library; the room had a sinister atmosphere heightened by the musty odor of books long forgotten. Surprisingly, the first question was directed at Mrs. Fitzgerald, who was sitting with a smug expression in anticipation of Danny’s embarrassment. She was caught totally off guard.
“Mrs. Fitzgerald, why are we reviewing just one proposal today? Am I to assume that the only project you rejected out of forty-seven belongs to Danny and Crystal?” Danny’s new math teacher asked.
As it turned out, several of the board members knew Mrs. Fitzgerald resented Danny and had been treating him unfairly.
“Well, I, eh, I counseled many students who came to me asking for guidance, so the only proposal rejected is the one before you.”
“On what basis did you reject this proposal?” the librarian Ms. Keymann asked.
“Well, I should think it’s quite obvious. The subject matter has little scientific value. It’s potentially dangerous and I don’t believe we should encourage our students to challenge current scientific theories,” Mrs. Fitzgerald said, trying to keep her composure.
“If we don’t teach our students to think beyond the acceptable theories that exist today, how do you expect mankind to continue to push the frontiers of science?” demanded Mr. Skinner, head of the science department.
“I would suggest that you review the proposal, and support my decision!” Mrs. Fitzgerald stated emphatically.
Her outburst raised several eyebrows.
Mr. Skinner turned to Danny and Crystal. “Would you please present your project and explain why we should overturn Mrs. Fitzgerald’s decision?”
Danny and Crystal spent the next hour reviewing their science fair proposal, answering some direct questions from Mrs. Fitzgerald, who as it turned out did little to benefit her cause. Several of the science teachers had some of the same concerns expressed by her; however, most felt the project was unique since it contained elements of chemistry, physics, and mathematics, as well as history and psychology. After a few minutes of deliberation, eight of the ten committee members approved the project, much to the chagrin of Mrs. Fitzgerald. She was the first to leave the room, while the other members continued talking to Danny and Crystal, finding their proposal fascinating and intrigued with their level of maturity.
Chapter 19
Science Fair
D anny’s dad was successful in obtaining permission to use the fabrication facilities at his work and those of subcontractors to assist in the construction of Danny and Crystal’s cold fusion cells. His department had an education budget, which it used to support the efforts of local students who entered the yearly science fair competition. This was great news, but unfortunately, his excitement was short-lived once he clearly understood the scope of the research and hardware required to implement their proposal.
The project called for comparing the excess heat generated by a standard Pons-Fleishmann electrolytic cell to an array of specially designed solid-state metal-oxide-metal (M-O-M) structures and to display the results real-time during the judging of the contest.
They decided to use an M-O-M structure because their research, as well as Danny’s recently acquired knowledge of solid-state physics, convinced them that cold fusion as experienced by Pons and Fleishmann was a surface phenomenon and probably involved a type of ionic field emission, otherwise known as tunneling, which was a quantum physics effect. They also speculated that the heat generated by most of the past attempts to recreate the Pons-Fleishmann effect was due to localized surface phenomena and not generated over the entire palladium surface or in the body of the electrode.
They came to this conclusion because the best reported results occurred when impurities were added to the electrolyte solutions. Past results were also reported to be positively impacted by the surface treatment of the palladium electrode.
As a result of these observations and hypotheses, they decided to perform a multifactorial experiment involving different metal surface treatments, oxide thicknesses (between ten and seventy angstroms), and types of nano-deposited oxides. Using this approach, each fabricated cold fusion cell contained an array of miniature M-O-M devices all contacted by standard integrated circuit assembly techniques in parallel across the surface of a one-inch square piece of high-purity palladium.
When the fabrication of their cold fusion solid-state cells was completed, they had twenty-five circuits each with a five-by-five array—twenty-five individual cells—made by the different process parameters mentioned earlier. In the interest of time, they needed to keep some important variables constant, hoping they were not the critical ones for success. Both metal layers were made of palladium; the bulk material received different surface treatments, but the top metal layer was deposited by the same technique each time and to the same thickness. All oxide layers were also hydrated by the same procedure. In addition, the assembly and packaging processes were identical for all twenty-five samples.
Ironically, their cold fusion circuits arrived just a few days before the science fair, which didn’t give them much time to set up their display in the school gym, debug their software, and perform a few test runs. As they were examining the cells and various electronic components needed for their display, Danny had doubts about whether they would be successful.
Yolan interrupted his thoughts. “Danny, we realize you’re concerned that you haven’t been able to develop a theory why cold fusion should work and that your approach is based more on instinct than exact science. But let us assure you, it’s not critical to have a theory at this stage because if you’re successful, the entire scientific community will once again focus on cold fusion.”
“But aren’t we repeating the same mistakes as Pons and Fleishmann?” thought Danny.
“The difference, Danny, is you’re a student, not a scientist, and you’re not announcing a scientific breakthrough. You’re merely submitting a science fair project.”
“But what if none of these cells work?”
“If they don’t work, you’ll just have to find a way to continue your research.”
Danny wasn’t satisfied, but there was a lot of work to do before they could test their cold fusion cells. He needed to refocus his attention back to helping Crystal set up the apparatus.
*****
The day of the science fair finally arrived. Danny was still trying to get the bugs worked out of the software he developed to monitor and control all twenty-five cold fusion circuits and display the results. Crystal assembled the apparatus and display panel, while Danny worked offline on the system software. He believed he had resolved all the electronic issues, but his software program still wasn’t applying the correct current density or monitoring the temperatures of each cell. The judging had started and they were scheduled to be judged last, since they were a late entry due to the delay caused by Mrs. Fitzgerald’s rejection. Danny had about two hours to get the software to function properly and was feeling the pressure.
The school gymnasium was packed with family and friends milling around looking at displays and anxiously waiting for the judges to score all the projects and announce their results. As Danny’s dad was viewing various exhibits, he saw a colleague who had recently left NASA to become the Wyoming state homeland security director.
“Jason, it’s been a long time. How are Mary and the children? Tell me about your new job, must be interesting.”
“Hello, Phil. Everyone’s just fine and the job certainly keeps me busy. How’s the old crew?”
“Everyone’s doing okay. Same old story, all work and no play.”
“I certainly understand. Is your boy participating in the fair again this year? I’m filling in for my brother who’s out of town.”
“That’s nice of you, I’m sure it wasn’t easy to get away from work, but I imagine you’re always in c
ontact with your team. Danny has the last exhibit over in the corner. There he is!”
“He certainly looks older and taller than the last time I saw him. I believe he’s now taller than you. By the way, who’s the redhead with him? She’s a real looker.”
“You remember Crystal. They still hang around together, best of friends, and by the way, she’s only sixteen, so be careful about your remarks.”
“You must be kidding. She looks at least eighteen and, by the way, so does Danny. Maybe you’re too close to see how fast they’re maturing. Just look around and compare them to their classmates.”
Danny’s dad had noticed the kids changing but never thought twice about it, just assumed it was normal. But now that he compared them to the other students, the difference was noticeable.
“I see that their exhibit is about cold fusion. I’m surprised you would let them waste their time.”
“I know, but it was a subject they were deeply interested in, and besides, they learned a great deal about chemistry, physics, and advanced electronic assembly techniques in the last few months.”
Just then there was loud applause as a growing crowd was gathering around one of the exhibits. It was clear from everyone’s reaction—it was the one to beat. As it turned out, Tony Cooper was exceptional at science and his exhibit on fluid dynamics was indeed impressive.
There were only five more exhibits left to judge when Danny finally got the software and the total system working. All the measurements and electronic controls were managed by the computer system and the monitor displayed each cold fusion cell’s temperature and its efficiency to convert electrical energy into heat energy. When it was their turn, Danny and Crystal only had ten minutes to explain their exhibit and demonstrate the cold fusion cells. Many of the judges looked skeptical, but as they listened to their prepared speech, the temperature curves on the monitor started to diverge and at least five of the cells recorded modest excess heat. An excited buzz spread through the gym as word spread about the results of the exhibit, which implied a possible successful demonstration of cold fusion. The computer system automatically controlled the current to each device so as the temperature increased, the current density decreased to prevent a possible meltdown situation.