by Ruth Snowden
Sometimes a dream or vision cannot be understood, however much one tries to investigate it. Jung says that in this case it is best then to leave it at the back of the mind, because it may become clearer at a later date. Often, an external event will clarify a dream that one has long been mulling over. Jung says that, if one carries a dream around for long enough, some sense will always emerge from it.
For Jung, dreams and symbols are never pointless or meaningless. They are often not directly connected with worldly concerns, which is why many people tend to dismiss them as being unimportant. Jung says that to him it is incredible that although we get messages from our unconscious psyche almost every night, most people cannot be bothered to explore their meaning and often even mistrust or despise them. He wonders what the unconscious thinks of us! Jung was never able to agree with Freud that a dream was merely a façade, behind which lurked a meaning that was already known but was being withheld from consciousness. Dreams, for Jung, are often difficult to understand because they are expressed in symbols and pictures, which form the language of the unconscious. They are not deliberately deceptive – they are simply natural attempts by the unconscious to express ideas in its own way.
SUMMARY
Today we have seen how, like Freud, Jung believed that dreams were a vital link between the conscious and unconscious parts of the psyche, and that they could be used as a tool in the therapeutic treatment of patients. However, Freud and Jung saw the nature of dreams in very different ways. Freud believed that dreams were the distorted expressions of repressed memories, traumas and desires – akin, almost, to neuroses. Jung saw dreams in a much more positive light, as efforts by the psyche to restore balance, as reminders about the neglected aspects of the personality, or even as messages from the archetypes of the collective unconscious. In short, dreams for Jung were catalysts of psychic growth.
We have also examined Jung’s approach to dream analysis, which was also different from Freud’s. Jung insisted on a more discursive, ‘open’ approach, in which the symbols found in dreams could draw on everything from an individual’s everyday life through childhood memories to the ‘collective’ world of myth and legend.
FACT-CHECK (ANSWERS AT THE BACK)
1. Freud saw dreams as…
a) Symptoms of repression
b) Distorted expressions of the unconscious
c) Starting points for free association
d) All of the above
2. Which of the following might best characterize Jung’s understanding of dreams?
a) Compensatory
b) Rigid
c) Organic
d) Wide-ranging
3. The longer a patient engages in dream analysis, the more likely it becomes that their dreams will draw on…
a) Childhood memories
b) Buried traumas
c) Myths and legends
d) None of the above
4. Religious symbols are:
a) Abstract
b) Personal
c) Concrete
d) Collective
5. Oracular dreams are those that…
a) Feel highly significant to the dreamer
b) Feel numinous to the dreamer
c) Feel unusual to the dreamer
d) Feel religious to the dreamer
6. Compensatory dreams…
a) Make up for bad luck
b) Predict a lottery win
c) Draw attention to qualities or aspects of the personality missing in waking life
d) None of the above
7. With your knowledge of Jungian dream analysis, how would you interpret a dream about a plague of locusts?
a) Objectively
b) Subjectively
c) Collectively
d) All of the above
8. According to Jung, children’s dreams…
a) Are often about wish fulfilment
b) Sometimes feature archetypes
c) Are simple and easy to analyse
d) Are the most complicated to decode
9. Dream analysis is best approached…
a) Collaboratively
b) Without ready-made assumptions
c) Over the long term
d) All of the above
10. In Jung’s famous dream about a house, what lay at the very bottom?
a) A hoard of ancient treasure
b) A cellar
c) A pit
d) A cave
Jung observed that human behaviour tends to follow certain basic patterns, which often operate as pairs of opposites. During the course of development, one of each pair often comes to be preferred so that the person tends to develop that mode of behaviour and act according to its characteristic aspects. The preferred mode of behaviour gradually becomes habitual and leads to predictable personality traits and ways of acting.
He identified two opposite and balanced ‘attitudes’ in human personalities. These were ‘introversion’, where psychic energy is turned inwards, towards the inner world, and ‘extroversion’, where psychic energy is turned outwards, towards the external world. He then established four different ‘functions’, which he called ‘thinking’, ‘feeling’, ‘sensation’ and ‘intuition’. A person’s conscious orientation will usually be towards one principal function, which will determine how the person reacts to experiences. Jung then combined the two attitudes and the four functions to produce eight different psychological ‘types’.
INTROVERSION AND EXTROVERSION
Jung’s theory divided people into two basic types, according to the orientation of their psychic energy. The two different attitudes were called ‘introversion’ and ‘extroversion’, and the two psychological types ‘introverts’ and ‘extroverts’. These terms are so well known today that people take them for granted in everyday use. Everyone has both attitudes to varying degrees, but there is a tendency for one of them to dominate.
• Introverts withdraw energy from the world and are more interested in their own inner world than the external world. They are reflective, hesitant people, with retiring natures, preferring to keep themselves to themselves. They often shrink away from new objects and situations and may appear to be somewhat defensive. Introverts need privacy and personal space.
• Extroverts direct their energy outwards towards the world and are more interested in external things and relationships. They are outgoing and frank, with accommodating, adaptable personalities. Extroverts need action and other people around them.
Usually one or other attitude will dominate in the personality and the opposite attitude becomes unconscious. The psyche will then tend to find compensatory ways of expressing this hidden attitude. The two types of attitude tend to clash because, where the extrovert will follow the crowd, the introvert will deliberately reject the majority view. The introvert likes peace and solitude, whereas the extrovert likes to be active and sociable.
Jung realized that nobody ever fitted exactly into one type. People have an infinite variety of different personalities and it would be too narrow and simplistic to fit them neatly into two categories. Because we all possess both attitudes, it is more a question of whether one predominates over the other. Jung’s theory is not really attempting to explain individual psychology – it is a generalization, aimed at trying to explain human behaviour. He developed his theory about personality to include four ‘functions’ in addition to the two attitudes.
The extrovert…
THE FOUR FUNCTIONS
The idea of there being four balanced elements within nature is very old. Shamanic and magical traditions often use a system where four elements – earth, air, fire and water – are related to four directions – north, east, south and west. Each element is also associated with different corresponding energies that are represented symbolically by animals, plants, seasons, colours and so on. For example, south is usually associated with the fire element, so an appropriate animal might be a dragon, the colour could be red and the season summer.
Long ago in ancient Greece, doctors and philosophers began to identify four personality types, based on the same idea of four balanced natural energies. These types, or ‘humours’, were: melancholic, sanguine, choleric and phlegmatic. Jung developed a theory of four personality functions based on a similar idea. His ‘four functions’ are grouped as two opposite pairs, giving them a feeling of balance. He named the four functions: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition.
Thinking and feeling are classed as ‘rational’ functions, because they rely on internal mental processes. They determine the way in which a person judges and evaluates experiences. Sensation and intuition are classed as ‘irrational’ functions because they rely on objective stimuli. They determine the way in which a person perceives experiences.
A person’s conscious orientation will usually be towards one of the four functions. This dominant function will determine how the person reacts to experiences. Its opposite function remains largely unconscious and the two left-over functions are partially conscious, partially unconscious. When the conscious function is particularly strong, there is a tendency for the opposite function to break through into consciousness now and again. This is called ‘the return of the repressed’ and it may manifest as hysteria, phobias, obsessions, unbalanced moods and so on. In order to gain a balanced, healthy mental attitude it is often necessary to work with the repressed function in therapy.
THINKING
This tells you what something is. Thinking people have logical, probing and questioning minds. They are good at seeing cause and effect, judging things and reaching logical conclusions by using their intellect. They are frank and may appear cool and distant emotionally. This kind of person is good at adapting to new circumstances.
FEELING
This tells you whether something is agreeable to you or not. Feeling people make judgements about how they value things. Jung stresses that ‘feeling’ is not used here in the emotional sense – that would imply irrational thinking. Jung is referring here to a rational function, used for putting things in order of value. Feeling people have a strong sense of traditional values and human relationships are important to them. They are often warm, creative people.
SENSATION
This tells you that something exists. This kind of person relies very much on sensory impressions. They assess their world by how things look, what words sound like and so on. Material things are very important to them and they are solid, grounded people. They take everything at face value and ‘call a spade a spade’. They can be boring and plodding, lacking in imagination, but on the other hand they are often jolly and easy-going. Their calm nature makes them appear rational and logical, but this is not always the case.
INTUITION
This gives you hunches about things. This kind of person is aware of chances, possibilities, the past and the future. They are often not aware of their own bodies and may be dreamy and ungrounded. They can become impatient with solid, monotonous detail and they are not practical people. Intuitive people are able to perceive possibilities that are not known consciously through the normal senses.
THE EIGHT PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES
Each of the four functional kinds of personality may be extroverted or introverted. Jung therefore combined the four functions and the two attitudes, to arrive at eight ‘psychological types’. A person’s psychological type is important in determining their view of the world and how they cope with situations and relationships.
EXTROVERT THINKING
This type is dominated by rational thinking and logic. They love order and facts, and tend to think that their view of the world is the correct one. In fact, they conveniently suppress anything that doesn’t fit in with their world view and they have a tendency to become tyrants. What they repress may return as violent moods, wild love affairs and so on. They have a strong sense of duty, but they may lack warmth and tolerance. Many scientists and engineers may belong to this type.
The introvert thinking type.
INTROVERT THINKING
This type is more interested in the inner world of ideas than external facts. They constantly ask questions and formulate theories about things, but they are reserved about accepting ‘facts’. They may appear eccentric to others and may be so cut off from the world that relationships are unimportant to them. Philosophers and other academics may belong to this type.
EXTROVERT FEELING
This type is well adjusted to the world around them, and fits in well with their peer group. They are conventional, concerned with personal success. They are tactful and charming, handling people well, and enjoy social gatherings and groups. On the negative side, they can be rather shallow and insincere. Event organizers and public relations people may belong to this group.
INTROVERT FEELING
This type is rather remote and inward looking – the ‘still waters run deep’ type of person. They are reserved and enjoy peace and quiet, poetry and music. They prefer to have a few intimate friends and understand people close to them pretty well. They are often very religious and self-sacrificing. These people are usually very genuine because they are hopeless at role-playing, and they make loyal friends. Monks and nuns may belong to this group.
EXTROVERT SENSATION
For this type, objects and sensations in the outside world are very important. This is the practical, man-of-the-world type who accepts the world as it is and enjoys living in it. The downside is that they can be addictive and pleasure-seeking personalities, sometimes with a tendency towards perversion. People of this type are often in business or property dealing.
INTROVERT SENSATION
With this type. the internal, subjectively experienced sensation is important. Objects do not count much to this type. They are so full of their own sensations that they may appear out of touch and find it hard to express themselves to others. They may claim to see ghosts, visions and startling imagery. Some artists and musicians may belong to this group.
EXTROVERT INTUITIVE
This type uses the intuitive part of the brain whenever a judgement or decision has to be made without knowing the full facts. They get bored with fixed, familiar, well-established things and like to explore the new and look to the future. Because of this, they may view customs and convention as unimportant and may trample on other people in order to get what they want. They are ‘chancers’, with their own form of morality. They rarely see a thing through to the end, and their personal relationships are weak. Entrepreneurs and businessmen may belong to this group.
INTROVERT INTUITIVE
To this type, the mystical world of dreams, visions and the collective unconscious is important. They are often pre-occupied with inner daydreams, fantasies and religious revelations. In the past, this type of person would have probably been the shaman of the tribe, but nowadays they are often rather outcast and regarded as being ‘odd’. Many psychics, mystics and poets belong in this group.
FORMING RELATIONSHIPS
Gaining insight into a person’s psychological type can assist progress in therapy or help to understand a relationship. People may gradually change their type as they develop and mature. Integration of the different types within the personality can be seen as the goal of the individuation process. The more mature the psyche becomes, the more a person is consciously aware of different aspects of the self. It is rare, if not impossible, to find a person who represents a pure type. The types are really intended to represent general behavioural tendencies, rather than concrete personality categories. Most people are a mixture of at least two types and more complex personalities probably incorporate more.
People are often attracted to their opposite type because their partner expresses the neglected function. There are two dangers here:
• People may avoid achieving their own psychological wholeness because they see their neglected function as belonging to the other person.
• Because opposite types do not understand each other, many misunderstandings can arise.
When a person projects their own hidden aspect onto someone else, they ‘fall in love’ with them. As they become more aware of their own unconscious aspect, this projection tends to be withdrawn and they fall out of love again.
Sometimes people fall for the same type as themselves. This means that the dominant function tends to be over-emphasized and the suppressed one causes all sorts of havoc in the relationship. For example, two introverted, intuitive poets might get together and live in a little fantasy world, totally neglecting their surroundings and living in squalor.
THE DEVELOPING PSYCHE
A person’s psychological type begins to become apparent quite early in childhood. It is determined by a number of different factors: