Data can be imported into Alice databases from other sources in a standard set of formats, including Description Language for Taxonomy (DELTA), using a merging tool kit.
This means that Alice can be used with other tools for managing biological data. Tools, which do not require sophisticated technology, are also available for web publication of entire or subsets of databases. Alice webs are highly indexed, so finding taxa of interest and locating taxa with specific attributes is easy.
Examples of the use of Alice include the creation of species checklists and descriptive databases of:
•
the world’s legumes;
•
cultivated plants such as potato, wheat and peas;
•
endangered species of ethnobotany;
•
plant usage of medical and poisonous plants, and other plant properties.
Always make a note of your sources for each single piece of information. For example, if you have a note of a local name, it is essential to know who gave you that name. This is important for three reasons:
158 Plant Identification
1
When you are looking through lists of local names later, if you find discrepancies, you know who to check with.
2
If you find patterns (for example, women always use one name, men another; or different ethnic groups use different names), you can note this in your guide.
3
In case information is questioned after publication, you can refer back to the source.
In some guides, the authors explain in the introduction where they found the information about the species. This can help the user to decide how authoritative the guide is, and to understand why there are variations or gaps in the information. It can also stimulate guide users to note their own observations and provide feedback to the authors, which can help in producing later revised editions or even contribute significantly to scientific knowledge (see Box 2.1, page 17).
PRIMARY DATA: INFORMATION DIRECT FROM PEOPLE
There are many different methods available for gathering information using interviews and participatory techniques, and it is important to understand the suitability of each for the kind of information you need, and the person or other source you intend to get it from. Table 7.2 gives guidance on this. Both semi-structured interviews and questionnaires have a role to play in information-gathering for field guides; but in addition, a number of participatory tools are useful when seeking more local knowledge about the plants, their significance and uses. Finally, various documented sources of information can be searched to support your findings. All of these methods are described below.
Semi-structured interviews
As explained in Chapter 3, a semi-structured interview is one in which a relaxed but focused conversation discusses relevant issues but allows the informant to provide depth and indicate other issues of relevance. It is based on the preparation of a checklist of topics that covers all of the aspects the interviewer needs to know; but instead of reading out questions that cover the topics, the interviewer aims to have a naturalistic, flowing conversation with the informant by skilfully steering the discussion to cover all of the topics.
In order to do this, it is very important to avoid suggesting an answer to the informant; instead, the semi-structured interview relies strongly on open questions –
questions to which it is not possible for the informant to guess a ‘correct’ answer, but instead will feel encouraged to reply from his or her own experience. The opposite of open questions, closed questions are often phrased in such as way that the answer can be
‘yes’ or ‘no’. Open questions, which use phrases such as ‘What do you think about X?’
or ‘Why do people do Z?’ are much more productive.
Other techniques that are important in semi-structured interviewing are designed to ensure that you have really understood what your informant knows about the topic.
Probing refers to exploring a topic more deeply, using techniques such as:
•
waiting for further information;
•
repeating a question;
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Table 7.2 Linking the method and source to the kind of information needed Kind of information
Source
Method
Distribution management
Botanical specialists
Semi-structured interviews
uses
Characteristics of
related species
Ways to avoid confusion
with other similar species
Uses
Rural experts
Semi-structured interviews
Cultural meanings/folklore
Ethnobotanical surveys and
Distribution and habitat
questionnaires
preferences
Observation
Management and
Participatory workshops:
cultivation
• ranking
• sorting
• seasonal calendars
• timelines
• maps
Other key informants
Semi-structured interviews
Distribution
Herbarium specimen
Herbarium specimen search
Ecology labels
Uses
Uses in other locations
Internet
Internet searches with cross-checking
Cultural meanings
of reliability
Generalized guidance on
Published work
Literature searches
management for plants
in that genus or family
Source: Anna Lawrence
•
asking for an example or an explanation;
•
asking for further information by asking ‘what other things …’ – for example, ‘what other species have this name?’;
•
repeating what the respondent has just said.
Don’t forget to record the results in a way that is acceptable to the informant. Tape-recording the interview often seems like the best way to retain all of the detail; but there are two disadvantages – it may make respondents feel uncomfortable, and transcribing the results afterwards can take four or five times the total length of the interview.
Nevertheless, if the respondent agrees and you have the time to transcribe it, this is the most accurate way of recording interviews. Otherwise, take care to write all the information you need in a notebook, together with the date, place and name of your informant. Box 7.3 provides more advice on how to make sure the interview goes well.
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BOX 7.3 GUIDANCE ON CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS
This applies to any kind of interview, whether an in-depth unstructured discussion, a semi-structured interview with checklist of topics or a structured questionnaire.
A good interviewer:
•
is well prepared and understands the topic thoroughly;
•
listens attentively to the respondent and does not impose his or her views;
•
is courteous and friendly, and easily establishes rapport in the given cultural context;
•
inspires confidence and trust by making sure that the respondent understands why he or she is conducting the interview;
•
records the interview in a way that is both accurate and acceptable to the respondent.
A good interview:
•
is held in an environment where the respondent feels at ease, and at a time which suits the respondent;
•
begins with introductions and an explanation of the reasons for the interview;
•
makes the respondent feel comfortable by assuring them of confidentiality and avoi
ding expressing an opinion of their responses;
•
allows the respondent to talk as much as he or she wants to;
•
keeps an eye on the time so that all of the questions can be addressed in the time available, without wasting the respondent’s own time;
•
ends by thanking the participant for making his or her time available.
Questionnaires
A structured questionnaire is highly appropriate for collecting information about each species in the guide since each description will contain the same categories. The questionnaire can simply be prepared as a form with the same categories of information that appear in your database. Questionnaires help to gain information from a large number of people, or about a large number of species, in a way that is easily analysed because the same specific questions are asked about each species. Although the terms
‘questionnaire’ and ‘survey’ are often used interchangeably, a questionnaire is a written form containing questions that people fill in, while a survey is a more general term that might include this, as well as face-to-face or telephone interviews. Both are good ways of gathering information systematically, but often reveal less about people’s perceptions and concerns than more flexible methods such as semi-structured interviewing (see the previous section). Box 7.4 explains how to write and use a questionnaire.
It is very important to field-test questionnaires before using them to gather your data. It is possible to waste much time talking to people before realizing that they have misunderstood some of your questions or you are missing an essential question, in which case you have to revisit all of your respondents. Field-testing means taking your draft questionnaire to a few friendly respondents who are happy to answer your questions on the understanding that you are testing and, therefore, that you welcome feedback on how easily they understand the questions and whether you have covered all of the possibilities.
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BOX 7.4 HOW TO COLLECT INFORMATION USING A QUESTIONNAIRE
•
Method: producing, using and analysing a questionnaire.
•
Objective: collect information from different stakeholders in a structured manner.
•
Output: information regarding what different stakeholder groups want from the guide, and what they would like to be included in the guide.
•
Staff: two researchers (do not need to be so experienced as those conducting semi-structured interviews).
•
Participants: key informants or representatives from each stakeholder group.
•
Time:
–
preparation: half a day;
–
testing and amending: one day;
–
completing: although questionnaires should be short (half an hour to one hour), it is rarely possible for an interviewer to complete more than four questionnaires in a day;
–
analysis: very dependent upon the number of questionnaires; allow one day per eight questionnaires for data entry and word processing, and a further two weeks full time for reviewing and editing the information, and planning follow-up.
•
Equipment: if possible, computer with word-processing software to set up questionnaire, and spreadsheet software to analyse results.
•
Materials: photocopied questionnaires; pens.
Planning
When planning a questionnaire, it is worth considering the following questions:
•
What information do you need and from whom?
•
Are these respondents going to be able to fill in a questionnaire?
•
If not, do you have the resources to take the questionnaire to them and ask the questions in person?
In order to address these questions:
•
Make a list of specific items of information that you need. Work backwards from the outline of your field guide to make sure that you haven’t missed anything.
•
Are you going to ask people face to face, by telephone, by email, or distribute printed copies of the questionnaire? If you will be present or on the phone line, you can help to explain the questions and fill in the answers yourself; but if you are sending out the questionnaire, you need to make sure the format and design is very clear so that people can fill it in for themselves.
•
How precise does your information need to be? This will affect your choice of open-ended questions or multiple-choice questions.
Different types of questions
Closed questions are those that can have only a limited range of responses. They can be numerical responses. For example:
•
How often do you visit this national park every year?
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Or you may offer the respondent a list of possible answers and ask them to tick those that apply. For example:
•
Which of the following help you to identify this species: (a) flower colour;
(b) leaf shape;
(c) bark;
(d) smell;
(e) other _________. (Please describe)
The last example, ‘other’, is, in fact, an open question. Open questions can involve any response. They are useful when you have fewer preconceptions about the answers you may receive and are still looking for new ideas. For example:
•
What are the features of this tree that tell you it is species X?
Such questions can give you a rich variety of responses; but it is more difficult to analyse them in a structured way.
Writing the questionnaire
•
Write an introduction to explain to respondents what the survey is about and how their response will help. If you are going to interview respondents in person, you can use this as a reminder to yourself of what you need to say.
•
Explain why the questions are being asked.
•
Start with interesting and easy questions.
•
Avoid intrusive or sensitive questions. For a field guide, there should be little need for such questions in any case; but you might need to explore issues about ownership of information, or perceptions of why other guides have not worked. Many people do not like to be critical and will certainly avoid being so early on in the interview. They will be more likely to give their frank opinions once they are in their stride.
•
The specific content depends upon the stage at which you are doing your planning. If you simply want to produce a popular guide that will encourage tourists to visit the area and take an interest in the plants, you will take a relatively open approach to finding out what sort of guide appeals to them most. If, however, you have already decided that you want to produce a guide to the mosses of a small nature reserve, you will not want to waste time on questions about people’s favourite species, but instead move directly to questions about how familiar they are with plant identification procedures, how useful the scientific names are to them, etc.
•
Conclude in a friendly way, thanking them for their time and informing them what feedback you will be able to provide, if any.
•
Include a space to record the respondent’s name and the place and date of the survey.
•
Check your questionnaire carefully – and cut it down as much as possible. The world is full of questionnaires that are much too long and whose results have never been fully analysed.
Testing your questionnaire
•
There must be no doubt about the meaning of your questions.
•
The questionnaire design is the most important part of your research: if you get it right, the responses and analysis will follow smoothly.
Informa
tion 163
•
Pre-test everything – the questions, the questionnaire as a whole –
with everybody who will give you the time of day.
•
Does it really need to be that long?
Analysing the responses
•
Enter data into a spreadsheet as you go along – this saves time and makes comparisons and analyses quicker and easier.
•
Open responses can be categorized and grouped once all the responses have been received. This is useful to see general trends; but detail can be lost and bias introduced by the person categorizing the responses.
•
Remember to give feedback from the questionnaire to respondents if this is appropriate.
•
Since every question should have been asked for a reason, all responses will be useful in your project.
For example, it is common when asking a multiple-choice question to give respondents the option of answering ‘other’. You might, for example, ask:
•
Would you describe this leaf as:
(a) oval;
(b) round;
(c) pointed;
(d) other _________? (Please describe)
If, in your field test, you find that most of your respondents are answering ‘other’ and giving the description ‘heart-shaped’, it is more useful to revise the questionnaire and include that option in your list, rather than have everyone answer ‘other’.
Case study 7.1 gives an example of a questionnaire used to provide all of the information needed for the descriptions in the guide to forage legumes of the Caatinga (Costa et al, 2002). However, it was by no means the first version of the questionnaire. It took several revisions to make the questions as clear as possible, to include all of the information categories needed and to avoid repetition between questions.
Ethnobotanical studies
Ethnobotany is the study of local knowledge about plants, usually referring specifically to knowledge held by indigenous people. It is not a separate methodology, but rather an interdisciplinary field that combines methods from biology, anthropology and more quantitative social sciences. It follows the principles of interviewing and questionnaire construction given above. However, some extra guidance may be needed when interviewing indigenous groups about their knowledge and use of plants, both because their worldview may be quite distinct from that of the field guide authors, making it difficult to understand each other’s perceptions of the plants and habitats, and because plants, animals and natural habitats may be so important to the indigenous people that they feature significantly in the culture and in a way that respondents may be reluctant to divulge. It is important to respect this and avoid pushing for more information than
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