The executive function of government was performed by the Råd and it was expected to keep the machinery of government functioning. When not serving abroad, members were required to be in their offices in Stockholm. Ten members were specifically named to stay at the capitol and run the government.
With Gustav being absent almost continually, an executive cabinet was created. This was the Regency Council consisting of the grand or high chancellor, high steward, grand marshal (of the army), grand admiral and grand treasurer. It was this group that conducted the business of the government in Gustav’s absence and during Christina’s minority. They expected to continue to rule even after the young queen took the throne. The aristocracy had come to dominate the government and the country.
The mid–1600s saw a boom in the Swedish economy. With Sweden in control of the Baltic, her trade and shipping grew at an unprecedented rate. Capital from the Netherlands was used to reform the already lucrative mining industry. The economy gradually shifted from one of barter to one based on currency. Crown lands and overseas holdings were sold or granted to the rich, to the aristocracy, and to new members of the nobility as rewards for service. This system produced an efficient administration of the lands, and taxes from these holdings were expected to be paid in hard currency instead of in kind. The sale of land benefited the state, which needed cash to conduct the wars, but it also enriched the highest class of nobility the most. This group of counts and barons began to separate themselves from the rest of the aristocracy by building mansions in the capital and on their country estates. They ran the Regency Council and the Råd. The country appeared to be on its way to becoming a republic of the high aristocracy, a direction Alex Oxenstierna was promoting.
Christina took her oath of office before a meeting of the Riksdag on December 7, 1644. Though the nation now had a queen in fact as well as in name, little change in government operation was expected. The Regency and Råd would continue to rule as before. But Sweden now had a queen with other ideas. The first test of wills and power was soon to come.
The war with Denmark had taken a turn in favor of Sweden. The recent Swedish naval victory had opened the possibility of Danish annihilation. Other northern countries, however, did not want Sweden to become too strong, upsetting the balance of power. They applied pressure on Sweden to come to terms. The Dutch sent a fleet of forty ships to the Sound and even Poland was making noises about becoming involved. France considered it a diversion keeping her ally from devoting full attention to the German war.
On February 25, 1645, peace negotiations opened in the little town of Brömsebro on the border between Småland (Sweden) and Blekinge (Denmark) as per tradition for wars between the two countries. Cardinal Mazarini sent M. de la Thuillerie, his ambassador, to Sweden to mediate the conference with Oxenstierna representing Sweden. Chancellor Oxenstierna wanted an agreement that would give control of the three Danish provinces on the Scandinavian Peninsula to his country, but the queen and the French pushed for immediate peace and a settlement that Denmark could live with, preventing a renewal of war.
Christina sent letters to Oxenstierna urging lenient demands and citing the Råd’s urgent desire for peace. In the end the queen won though the terms were certainly favorable to Sweden. By the treaty signed in August, Sweden acquired Gotland Island, Ösel Island and the provinces of Jämtland and Härjedalen. Also, Sweden would hold Halland for thirty years as a guarantee from paying the tolls at either the Sound or the Belts. Christina was pleased with the treaty and upon Oxenstierna’s return to Stockholm, gave him the title of count (the count of Södermöre), a large estate, and praised his efforts before the Råd.
Following the conclusion of the treaty, Christina fell ill, exhibiting a physical weakness that was to torment her for her entire reign. She recovered only to fall sick again with the measles. She had the Vasa mind and determination, but lacked the physical strength characteristic of her lineage.
With one war ended the young queen turned her attention to ending the other major Swedish conflict, the war in Germany. Here Sweden was also in a position of strength. Torstensson, after leaving Jutland, had once again marched toward eastern Germany. He was determined to recover Bohemian and Moravian territory lost while he was attacking Denmark. He met the first Imperial army at Jüterborg on November 23, 1644, and defeated it soundly. Bohemia was again under Swedish control.
Torstensson pushed on into Austria as Ferdinand frantically scraped together another army committing the reserves from his capital, Vienna, and incorporating troops of Maximilian I. The armies met at Jankau, a day’s ride from Vienna, on March 6, 1645. The Swedes were badly outnumbered but the rough terrain prevented Götz, the Imperial general, from taking full advantage of the size of his force.
Götz deployed the Imperial forces along a series of ridges. Torstensson sent his infantry through a wooded area to attack the enemy left wing. They were successful in capturing some of the high ground and immediately moved up the field artillery. The Imperialist cavalry counterattacked, but was cut down by the murderous fire of the concentrated Swedish guns.
Torstensson then launched his own horse, including the Finnish Hakkapälites, which succeeded in surrounding the Imperialist cavalry, forcing the entire corps to surrender on the battlefield. The remaining enemy forces could do nothing but try to save themselves. The battle had been decided by the Swedish field artillery and the close coordination between all three branches of the army.
Over half the Imperial army was lost. Götz was killed and the famous Imperial cavalry destroyed. Vienna lay open and Ferdinand fled the city. Torstensson did take a bridge over the Danube to provide an entrance into the city, but his army was exhausted and he lacked siege equipment and resources for a protracted battle to take the city.
Although a Swedish army now stood at the gates of the Imperial city, Torstensson’s real objective had been Moravia. He turned northeast and lay siege to Brünn. The city resisted stoutly for five months. Torstensson, now seriously ill, lifted the siege and returned to Bohemia where he turned over command to Wrangel.
On the other side of Germany, French forces had defeated the emperor’s troops at the battle of Nördlingen that same year. Before the end of the year Saxony decided it had had enough and concluded a peace treaty with Sweden.
Peace negotiations to end the Thirty Years’ War had been initiated in 1641. The French and Dutch were meeting with Ferdinand III’s representatives at Munster. In an attempt to divide and settle things separately with his two antagonists, the emperor arranged negotiation with Sweden at a different site, namely Osnabrück. The events of 1645 brought Ferdinand to the point of near total defeat. He had lost Saxony, Brandenburg and Spain as effective allies. A Swedish army had forced him to flee his capital. Still he held out.
In 1646 the Swedish army under Wrangel joined a French army commanded by the capable Henri de la Tour Turenne, a Protestant and student of Maurice of Nassa. The combined force occupied Bavaria. Maximilian I signed a treaty of neutrality in March 1647 with the two enemies providing relief for his country. Internal problems required Turenne to return to France. Wrangel pushed ahead on his own and seized Prague. But as soon as the French were clear of Germany, Maximilian broke his neutrality treaty and attacked Wrangel at Prague, driving him from the city.
The last campaign of the war began in March 1648 with Turenne back in Germany and again he combined forces with Wrangel at Ansbach. The Swedish-French army then marched back into Bavaria where they met the Imperial-Bavarian army at the battle of Zusmarhausen near Augsburg. The German army was defeated and fell back across the Inn River leaving the rest of Bavaria open to the allies, who decimated the countryside to an extent extreme even by the standards of the Thirty Years’ War.
Meanwhile, a detached Swedish force under Königsmarch invaded the Upper Palatine, then Bohemia, again leaving a wide path of destruction in its wake. Finally, the Swedes appeared at the walls of Prague. Though his army was small and lacked heavy artillery, Königs
march was able to take a quarter of the city because of the defection of a traitorous Imperial officer. Königsmarch was reinforced by troops under the command of Karl Gustav arriving from Sweden. But only a little more of the city was taken before a courier arrived with news that there was a peace settlement.
Maximilian I had finally concluded a new peace treaty with Sweden and France. Ferdinand III then signed a treaty with both countries. Later Spain and the United Provinces signed a separate peace treaty bringing to a close 80 years of war and recognizing the Netherlands as a sovereign state.
Taken together these treaties are called the Peace of Westphalia. The Dutch gained independence. France gained Alsace and part of Strasburg, Breisach, Philipsburg and the bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun. Sweden received West Pomerania, Wismar, Stettin, Mecklenburg and the bishoprics of Verden and Bremen, which gave her control over the estuaries of the Elbe and Weser rivers. With her German possessions, Sweden also gained a seat in the Holy Roman Empire Assembly. Brandenburg picked up East Pomerania and the archbishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt. Lower Palatinate was restored to Charles Louis, son of Friedrich, and an eighth elector’s title was created to go along with it. Saxony kept Lusatia. Bohemia remained a hereditary domain controlled by the emperor.
The great loser in the war was Germany. Much of the countryside was devastated. Towns were left deserted. German and Austrian populations dropped from 21 million to 13.5 million. Bohemia, that once most fertile of all the lands, was destroyed, its population reduced from 3,000,000 to 800,000. While the various nations haggled over the spoils, the people of Germany turned to rebuild homes, fields, towns and cities decimated by the war. It would recover in a surprisingly short time.
Christina had pushed for the peace in opposition to the war party of the aristocracy which wanted more territory for Sweden. Again the young queen had won and secured peace for her country.
With Sweden’s wars winding down Christina turned her attention to making her country, one of the most powerful in Europe, into one of the most intellectually glittering. Scholars and philosophers flocked to Stockholm, some invited, some not, but all were tolerated and many were handsomely rewarded. One of the first to arrive was Isaac Vossius, who organized the royal library, cataloging the books and documents sent from conquests of the empire, particularly the war booty from Prague. Others arriving included Nicholas Heinsius, Claudius Salmsius, Johannes Scheffer, Samuel Bochart and Christian Ravius. But the most illustrious visitor by far was the renowned René Descartes. Celebrated in all Europe for his genius in the fields of physics, music, mathematics and philosophy, the prodigy had moved from his native France in 1629 to Efmond, Holland, where he had added the study of animals and the cultivation of flowers to his wide ranging pursuits. Here he had isolated himself from human contact almost entirely.
Christina had corresponded with Descartes as early as 1641 and finally induced him to come to Stockholm in 1649. She sent a ship to convey him to her capital where he arrived in October of that year. The famous philosopher and the Queen of the North spent much time together. He apparently enjoyed her company and she found his knowledge and view points fascinating. Unfortunately, their meetings were during the early hours of the day. The queen’s schedule was taken up with the responsibilities of state during the day, and her evenings with social events and her constant studying. But Christina’s early mornings were reserved for the French philosopher and so Descartes was obliged to make his royal visits at 5 a.m. For a man used to arising at midday and never one to overexert himself this was nearly intolerable. Still he stayed on until the cold climate and cruel schedule wore him down and he fell ill with pneumonia. He died February 1, 1650. All Europe mourned his passing. Christina was blamed for his untimely demise in the solons and courts of the continent. Indeed she may have contributed to his death by her unreasonable demands on a man of frail health.
Men of learning continued to migrate to Stockholm throughout Christina’s reign, along with books, precious manuscripts and documents from all parts of the world, some purchased, some gifts and some the booty of war. The young queen succeeded in making Stockholm a center of enlightenment rivaling any in Europe. Stockholm became known as the “Athens of the North.”
Besides the wars and the queen’s efforts to elevate the capital’s social and enlightened status, there was the question of marriage of the sovereign and succession to the throne. The primary figure in this drama was the sweetheart of the queen’s youth, Karl Gustav. In December 1645 he returned to Sweden from the German wars to find a changed situation. The young girl, once his romantic interest, was now the queen, preoccupied with affairs of state, and with no intention of taking a husband anytime soon. Her attitude is reminiscent of Elizabeth I of England; both appeared to appreciate being surrounded by potential suitors, but neither had any intention of sharing their thrones. Among new interests of the queen was the French ambassador Pierre Chanut, who arrived at that time. It was with Chanut that Descartes roomed while in Stockholm. The queen took a great interest in Chanut and he became a confidant during his stay.
Karl Gustav, meanwhile, found himself shunted to the side where he could only engage in the developing political division in the government. Two parties were emerging. One, led by Oxenstierna, represented those in favor of an aristocratic form of government and was pro-war. This group also wanted to see the queen married. Members included most of the Råd and the Estate of Nobles. Opposing this faction was the queen, Palatinate count Johann Casimir, Bishop Johannes Matthiae, High Admiral Karl Karlsson Gyllenhielm (Christina’s uncle), and Magnus de la Gardie.
At the 1647 Riksdag the issue of marriage was raised, but not pushed to a conclusion. A Committee of the Estates expressed the opinion that the queen should marry, but that her husband would be merely a consort with Christina retaining royal power. The young queen fired back with a proclamation to the Råd that she alone would “select the time and the occasion for her marriage and would at such time give preference of consideration to Duke Karl.”6 She also let Karl know where he stood: “that were she to marry him it would not be for love.”7
The stage was set for a struggle between the young queen and the nobility for the control of the government, and there were plenty of examples abroad of the monarchies losing. In the Netherlands the House of Orange was caught in the same struggle and would lose after the death of William II in 1650. The French monarchy was threatened by the Fronde Revolt. In Poland, Denmark and Germany the kings and emperor were dominated by the aristocracies and in England Charles I would be executed in 1649 as Oliver Cromwell and his Roundheads took power in a bloody civil war.
Christina had taken on Oxenstierna at the peace negotiations ending the Danish war and prevailed. She had pushed hard for peace during the negotiations at Osnabrück against the efforts of the war party and again carried the day. Now it was the very power of the government itself that was at stake.
By 1647 she had probably decided against marrying Karl, but also concluded that his linage should carry on as heirs to the Swedish throne. Now began a struggle to establish the dominance of the monarchy and leave it in the hands of Karl’s heirs.
Christina’s first move was to have Karl appointed commander in chief of the army. She got the promotion passed by the Råd in exchange for a promise to marry Karl later. In July 1648 Karl left Sweden for the German wars expressing his desire to marry the queen.
The Riksdag of 1649 opened on January 22 and on February 22 the Committee of Estates confronted the queen with a demand to make good on her promise, to marry, at the earliest opportunity. Christina countered with a proposal that the committee appoint Karl hereditary prince and successor to the throne in the event of her death. The Estates all opposed the idea of having two potential regencies. Only the Cleric Estate showed some inclination toward acceptance. She next turned to the Råd, but met the same united front of opposition. Finally, she settled on the council representing the Estates as her best avenue to success.
&
nbsp; At first the council was as adamant as the other government bodies had been, but then Christina played her trump card. She informed the representatives, “I declare quite definitely that it is impossible for me to marry. Such is my attitude, though the reason I have no intention of disclosing.”8 This put an entirely different light on the subject. No marriage meant no heir unless one was provided by other means. The council buckled and concurred with the queen that the matter should be brought before the Estates.
A bill was now written to be presented to the Estates naming Duke Karl Gustav as her successor. The Clergy was supportive and she enlisted the burghers. She next turned to the peasant representatives and won them over. Finally, she addressed the nobility. She made good progress with the lower aristocracy and used them against the higher levels, winning enough of the mid-level to carry the vote in the House of Nobility. By mid–March Oxenstierna grudgingly signed the bill expressing the will of the committee. Christina had triumphed once again. She had exhibited a remarkable deftness as a politician and in the process had strengthened the crown’s hold on the government.
Karl, away in Germany with the army, was not happy with the events at home. He had had no voice in the proceedings and now postponed his acceptance, though it was hardly a requirement.
In the spring of 1650 Christina fell ill again and there was considerable speculation she would not survive. Oxenstierna and the Råd let it be known that they would block Karl’s coronation in the event of the queen’s death and would move to create an aristocratic republic.
Warrior Kings of Sweden Page 35