by Peter Bruck
Black Voices: An Anthology of Afro-American Literature (New York, 1968),
p. 557.
43. Brown , "The Negro Author and His Publisher," 17-18.
44. J . Saunder s Redding , On Being Negro in America (Indianapolis, 1951),
pp. 126-27.
45. Se e Hartmut K. Selke, A Study of Ralph Ellison's Published Work Viewed
in the Context of the Theme of Identity in Negro American Literature (Kiel,
Diss., 1975), p. 69 ff .
46. Wright , "Blueprint for Negro Writing," p. 317.
47. Selke, A Study of Ralph Ellison, p. 72.
48. Ralp h Ellison , "Th e Ar t o f Fiction : A n Interview, " Shadow & Act
(London, 1967), p. 172.
49. Addiso n Gayle , Jr., "Th e Functio n o f Blac k Literatur e a t th e Presen t
Time," in Gayle, The Black Aesthetic, p. 392.
50. Jame s Baldwin , "Man y Thousands Gone," Notes o f a Native Son (Lon-
don, 1965), p. 28.
51. Se e Pete r Freese , Die amerikanische Kurzgeschichte nach 1945 (Frank-
furt, 1974), p. 295 ff .
52. Jame s Baldwin, "Autobiographical Notes," Notes of a Native Son, pp.3-4.
53. Se e Baldwin's statement, "On e writes out of one thing only — one's own
personal experience." Ibid.
54. Pete r Bruck, Von der 'StoreFrontChurch''zum 'American Dream':James
Baldwin und der amerikanische Rassenkonflikt (Amsterdam, 1975), p. 143.
55. LeRo i Jones, "The Myth of a 'Negro Literature,'" Home: Social Essays
18
(New York, 1970), p. 112.
56. Joh n Olive r Killens , "Introduction : Th e Smokin g Sixties, " in Woodie
King, ed., Black Short Story Anthology (New York, 1972), p. xiii.
57. Richar d Wright , "Th e Literatur e o f th e Negr o i n th e Unite d States, "
White Man, Listen! (Garden City, 1964), p. 104.
58. Hoy t W. Fuller, "Th e New Black Literature: Protes t or Affirmation," in
Gayle, The Black Aesthetic, p. 330.
59. Larr y Neal , "The Blac k Arts Movement," in Gayle, The Black Aesthetic,
p. 257.
60. LeRo i Jones, "state/ment," Home, p. 251.
61. Willia m Melvin Kelley, in his preface to Dancers on the Shore (Chatham,
N.J., rpt., 1973).
62. Jac k Hicks, ed., in his preface to Cutting Edges: Young American Fiction
for the '70's (New York, 1973).
63. Willia m Peden , The American Short Story: Front Line in the National
Defense of Literature (Boston, 1964), p. 162.
64. Willia m Peden, The American Short Story: Continuity and Change 1940-
1975 (Boston, 1975), p. 187.
65. Ibid., p. 186.
66. Joh n A . Williams, "Blac k Publisher , Blac k Writer : A n Impasse, " Black
World (March, 1975), 29.
67. Jame s A. Emanuel and Theodore L. Gross, edd., Dark Symphony: Negro
Literature in America (New York, 1968), p. 353.
68. Se e Richar d Gilman, "White Standard s an d Negr o Writing, " i n C.W.E .
Bigsby, ed., The Black American Writer, 2 vols. (Baltimore, 1971), I, p. 40.
69. Abraha m Chapman , "Concept s o f th e Blac k Aesthetic, " i n Lloy d W.
Brown, ed., The Black Writer in Africa and the Americas (Los Angeles, 1973),
p. 40.
70. Addiso n Gayle, intro., The Black Aesthetic, p. xxii.
71. Se e Darwi n T . Turner' s revie w i n American Literature, 48 (1976), 416-
418.
19
Hartmut K . Selk e
CHARLES WADDELL CHESNUT T
THE SHERIFF'S CHILDREN
(1889)
Charles Waddel l Chesnut t (1858-1932) vie s wit h Pau l Laurenc e
Dunbar i n bein g th e firs t Afro-America n autho r t o b e accepted b y
major America n publishin g houses and t o wi n national recognitio n
and fame . Bot h authors , i n orde r t o b e publishe d a t all , ha d t o
come t o term s wit h th e literar y form s an d convention s o f th e
Plantation Traditio n whos e chie f exponent s wer e Joe l Chandle r
Harris, Thoma s Nelso n Page , James Lan e Alle n an d Harr y Stillwel l
Edwards. Thi s literar y conventio n stipulate d tha t th e blac k
characters b e presente d a s livin g contentedl y i n a n Edeni c South ,
that the y b e quaint, childlik e an d docile , tellers of exoti c yarn s fo r
the entertainmen t o f massa's children o r fo r massa himself. I t i s
this traditio n whic h gav e ris e t o th e literar y stereotype s o f th e
"Contended Slave, " the "Wretched Freeman, " who , being deprive d
of th e paterna l car e o f his master, is unable t o provid e fo r himself ,
the "Comi c Negro " and th e "Loca l Colo r Negro." 1
Since th e blac k writer , wh o wante d t o brea k int o print wit h hi s
accounts o f th e blac k experienc e i n America , ha d t o adap t hi s
work t o th e prevalen t taste s of th e da y and to present his characters
in a pastoral, harmonious setting, the onl y freedo m lef t t o him wa s
that o f choosin g "th e genr e o r th e countergenre," as Robert Bon e
points out. 2 B y pastora l genr e i s mean t th e "idylli c postur e to -
ward experience, " by countergenre the "ironi c posture." 3
Whereas Dunba r b y an d larg e conforme d t o th e limitation s o f
the idylli c posture , wearing , a s i t were , "th e mas k tha t grin s an d
lies,"4 Chesnut t neve r did , eve n whe n h e mad e us e o f th e estab -
lished forms , a s fo r exampl e i n hi s "conjure " stories , i n whic h h e
subtly undercu t th e submissiv e messag e apparentl y inheren t i n th e
very form. 5
Robert Farnswort h thu s summarize s th e relationshi p betwee n
Dunbar an d Chesnutt :
In a sense Charle s Chesnut t wa s to Pau l Laurenc e Dunba r what W.E.B.
21
DuBois wa s t o Booke r T . Washington . Whil e Dunba r demonstrate d a
shrewd ability t o exploit th e prejudices o f his largely whit e audience and
while h e serve d a n extraordinarily usefu l functio n b y simply being black
and achieving national literary prominence, yet his work does not look for-
ward. H e was not a s alive to the currents of literary an d social change as
was Chesnutt. .. . Dunbar seemed wistfully t o believe in the near possibility
of a truly colorles s world. Chesnutt was more pragmatic, believing perhaps
in the same ultimate vision, but recognizing more prominently th e imme-
diate problem s o f Souther n disfranchisement , Ji m Cro w legislation , an d
racial intermarriage.6
Charles Waddel l Chesnut t wa s bor n i n Cleveland , Ohi o i n 1858 ,
the so n o f free parent s wh o had lef t th e Sout h two years previously
to escap e th e narro w restriction s impose d eve n o n th e fre e mem -
bers of thei r race . After the war, the family returned to Fayetteville,
N.C., wher e Charles received hi s education i n th e newly establishe d
Howard Schoo l fo r Negroes . By the circumscribe d standard s o f th e
South, he had a brilliant career : h e wa s a pupil-teacher a t fourteen ,
the principa l o f a publi c schoo l a t Charlott e a t eightee n an d a t
twenty-two h e succeede d whit e Rober t Harri s a s principal o f th e
State Norma l Schoo l at Fayetteville .
Chesnutt wa s th e epitom e o f th e self-mad e man . H e rea d
widely and , i n th e Nort h Carolin a backwoods , manage d t o stud y
German, French , Lati n an d Gree k b
eside s acquiring , wit h n o out -
ward help , th e the n rathe r obscur e ar t o f shorthan d whic h wa s
later t o be the basis of his livelihood i n th e North .
Despite hi s success , Chesnut t constantl y chafe d agains t th e
restrictions h e encountere d i n th e South . White enough t o "pass, "
he toye d wit h th e ide a o f joinin g th e whit e race , a s thi s entr y i n
his diary fo r Jul y 31 , 1875 shows :
Twice today, or oftener, I have been taken fo r "white. " At the pond this
morning one fellow sai d he'd "b e damned if there was any nigger blood in
me." A t Coleman's I passed. ... I believe I'l l leave here and pass anyhow,
for I am as white as any of them. One old fellow said today, "Look here,
Tom. Here's a black as white as you are."7
Chesnutt ha d a ver y kee n sens e o f wha t h e wa s wort h — "A s I
have bee n throw n constantl y o n m y ow n resource s in my solitar y
studies, I hav e acquire d som e degre e o f self-reliance" 8 — an d h e
realized tha t prejudice , tha t "fou l blo t o n th e fai r scutcheo n o f
American liberty," 9 woul d preven t hi m fro m obtainin g th e
22
education whic h h e fel t wa s du e t o him , an d fro m reapin g th e
rewards, both financia l an d emotional , tha t shoul d naturally accru e
from hi s abilities, if he were t o remai n i n th e South .
As earl y a s 1880 , Chesnut t fel t th e urg e t o aspir e t o a literar y
career. " I thin k I mus t writ e a book, " h e boldl y confide s t o hi s
diary o n Ma y 29 , 1880 , and h e goes on to define the subject matter ,
the audienc e an d th e purpos e o f hi s projected writings :
Fifteen year s of life i n the South , in one of the most eventful era s of its
history, amon g a people whos e lif e i s rich i n th e element s o f romance ,
under conditions calculated t o stir one's soul to the very depths — I think
there i s here a fun d o f experience, a supply o f material, which a skillful
pen coul d work up with tremendous effect. Besides , if I do write, I shall
write fo r a purpose , a high , hol y purpose , an d thi s wil l inspir e m e t o
greater effort . Th e objec t o f m y writing s woul d b e no t s o muc h th e
elevation o f the colored peopl e as the elevation of the whites — for I con-
sider th e unjus t spiri t o f cast e .. . a barrier t o th e mora l progress of the
American people ; and I would be one of the first t o head a determined,
organized crusade against it. ...
The Negro's part is to prepare himself fo r recognition and equality, and it
is the province of literature to open the way for him to get it — to accustom
the publi c min d t o th e idea ; to lea d peopl e out , imperceptibly , uncon -
sciously, step by step, to the desired state of feeling.
By 188 3 Chesnut t sufficientl y mastere d shorthan d t o ventur e
North, reassure d tha t thi s knowledge woul d sustai n him . After hal f
a year' s experienc e a s a stenographer an d journalist fo r Do w Jone s
in Ne w Yor k City , h e settle d i n Cleveland , Ohio . I n 188 7 h e wa s
admitted t o th e bar . H e ra n a successful la w an d stenographer' s
business until , i n 1899 , he close d hi s office i n th e hop e o f embark -
ing o n a purel y literar y career . Th e absenc e o f financia l succes s
forced hi m t o resum e hi s busines s a s cour t stenographe r i n 1905 ,
after whic h dat e he published onl y occasionally .
Chesnutt's firs t publishe d story was "Uncle Tom's House," which
appeared i n 1885 . Thi s wa s followe d b y a stead y flow o f stories ,
which wer e publishe d b y th e magazine s o f th e McClur e syndicat e
and othe r publications . Whe n th e renowne d Atlantic Monthly
printed th e "conjure " storie s "Th e Goophere d Grapevine " an d
"Po' Sandy " i n 188 7 an d 1888 , Chesnutt no t onl y wo n th e friend -
ship o f Georg e Washingto n Cabl e bu t als o pave d th e wa y fo r th e
future publicatio n o f hi s firs t fou r book s o f fictio n b y Houghton ,
Mifflin an d Co . In the summe r o f 189 1 h e submitted a manuscrip t
23
of Rena Walden and Other Stories t o Houghton , Miffli n an d Co. ,
erroneously advisin g hi s prospectiv e publisher s o f th e novelt y o f
the "firs t contributio n b y a n America n o f acknowledge d Africa n
descent t o purel y imaginativ e literature, " an d goin g o n t o as k hi s
publishers not t o disclos e his ethnic identity :
I should not wan t this fact to be stated in the book, nor advertised, unless
the publishe r advise d it ; first because I do no t kno w whethe r i t woul d
affect it s reception favorabl y o r unfavorably, or at all; secondly, because I
would not have the book judged b y any standard lowe r than tha t se t fo r
other writers.
Houghton, Miffli n an d Co . did no t accep t th e manuscript bu t the y
kept hi s racia l identit y secre t unti l afte r th e publicatio n o f "Th e
Wife o f Hi s Youth " i n 189 8 whe n a reviewe r wrot e i n th e Critic
that Chesnut t "face s th e problem s o f th e rac e to whic h h e in par t
belongs."12
In 189 7 Chesnut t mad e a renewe d attemp t t o publis h a boo k
when h e submitte d twenty-tw o storie s t o Walte r Hine s Pag e o f
Houghton, Miffli n an d Co . Afte r lon g deliberatio n hi s publisher s
again rejecte d th e submitte d material s bu t requeste d furthe r
"conjure" storie s i n th e manne r o f "Th e Goophere d Grapevine "
for a collectio n o f shor t stories . Withi n tw o months , Chesnut t
wrote an d submitte d si x ne w "conjure " stories , thu s seemingl y
conforming t o th e requirement s o f a marke t whic h demande d th e
picturesque loca l colo r Negro . The Conjure Woman appeare d i n
March 189 9 and wa s favorably receive d b y th e critics .
A fe w month s afte r th e publicatio n o f hi s firs t book , Chesnut t
suggested t o Pag e tha t Houghton , Miffli n an d Co . publis h " a vol -
ume o f storie s alon g th e lin e o f Th e Wif e o f Hi s Youth,'" 13 a
story whic h had appeare d a year previousl y in the, Atlantic Monthly
and whic h depicte d th e lif e o f th e "Blu e Vei n Society, " s o calle d
because it s member s wer e s o light-skinne d tha t thei r vein s wer e
visible, i n a cit y o f th e North . The Wife of His Youth and Other
Stories of the Color Line appeare d i n the sam e year, as did a shor t
biography o f Frederic k Douglass . "Rena Walden, " a stor y o f th e
psychological quandarie s o f "passing " which Chesnutt ha d writte n
and rewritte n man y times , wa s extende d t o nove l lengt h an d
published a s The House Behind the Cedars i n 1900 . The Marrow
of Tradition, a n ambitiou s nove l attemptin g t o giv e a broa d per -
spective o f socio-politica l an d psychologica l problem s face d b y
24
Southern Afro-Americans a t th e tur n o f th e century , followe d i n
1901. Chesnutt' s las t novel , The Colonel's Dream (1905) , i s a n
indictment o f th e mora l an d economi c stagnatio n o f th e Sout h
and of the convict lease system which, as it were, continued slavery
beyond Emancipation .
Among th e theme s tr
eate d mos t ofte n i n Chesnutt' s work s are
(1) the inhumanit y o f th e system of chattel slavery, (2) the incon-
gruities o f th e colo r lin e a s drawn withi n th e blac k societ y itself ,
(3) th e dua l theme s o f passin g and th e ordea l o f th e double iden-
tity an d (4 ) th e injustices tha t Souther n blacks have to suffer eve n
after Emancipation , particularl y durin g th e restauratio n o f whit e
supremacy after Reconstruction .
At firs t sight , "The Sheriff's Children " might seem to be a treat-
ment o f the theme of the tragic mulatto. However, this is only one
and, a s shal l b e demonstrâted , no t th e dominan t them e o f th e
story.
"The Sheriff' s Children " wa s firs t publishe d i n th e Ne w Yor k
weekly magazine Independent i n November 1889. The Independent
then catere d t o a n educated , libera l whit e audience . Th e firs t
readers o f th e stor y wer e unawar e o f it s author's racia l identity .
Earlier that year Chesnutt had moved into his own, rather spacious
home i n Cleveland . Yet , th e othe r storie s publishe d o r writte n
during tha t yea r evinc e th e sam e sombr e an d combative note that
characterizes "The Sheriff s Children." In "The Conjurer's Revenge'
(June 1889 ) th e narrator , Uncl e Julius , denounce s slaver y wit h
unwonted explicitness , callin g the slavetrader s stealer s and seller s
of men and thus seeming to invoke the Biblical punishment fo r th e
manstealer.14
"Dave's Neckliss " (October 1889 ) is also an Uncle Julius story,
although no t a "conjure " stor y i n th e narro w sense . Lik e "Th e
Sheriffs Children, " thi s gruesom e stor y expose s "th e balefu l
influence o f huma n slavery." 15 Indeed , th e stor y bear s clos e
resemblance t o "Th e Sheriff' s Children" : punishe d unjustly b y an
otherwise "kind " maste r (thi s fac t i s peculiarly insiste d o n i n th e
story), Dav e is driven t o insanity and suicide. The "kind" master's
recognition o f hi s own guil t an d hi s repentance com e to o lat e t o
undo th e wrongs wrought by a system of chattel slavery. The third
story, of which Chesnutt completed th e first draf t i n 1889 , was the
often revise d "Rena Walden." It deals with the problem of the tragic
mulatto, whic h i s also touched upo n i n "Th e Sheriff s Children. "