by Peter Bruck
The Grea t Depressio n i n th e 30' s radicalized man y America n
writers, an d th e Communis t Part y devise d tw o main strategie s t o
win ove r intellectuals : th e us e o f The New Masses, a magazine ,
as a critical orga n an d stag e fo r proletaria n writin g and the organ-
ization of writers in John Reed Clubs.4
In The New Masses (1930) th e leadin g Marxist criti c Michael
Gold outlined the objectives of "proletarian realism": 5
1. Skilful technique s using the Hemingway model.
2. Real conflicts of men and women as a theme.
3. Social themes serving a purpose.
4. Simplicity of style.
5. Proletarian instead of decadent bourgeois milieu.
99
6. Swift actio n — cinema in words.
7. Revolutionary élan instead of pessimism.
8. Scientific analysis of thought and feeling .
9. Real world instead of melodrama.
Wright bega n t o writ e an d publis h afte r joinin g th e Chicag o
John Ree d Clu b wher e th e idea s o f proletaria n realis m see m t o
have reached him . When th e part y dissolve d th e Joh n Ree d Clubs
in 193 5 t o for m a League o f America n Writer s in accord wit h the
new Popular Fron t strateg y — a broad, mass-based (not only prol-
etarian) fron t agains t fascis m an d wa r — Wrigh t wen t alon g wit h
the ne w policy. Hi s position i s reflecte d i n Blueprint for Negro
Writing (1937).
Wright's Blueprint i s a n adaptatio n o f proletaria n realis m fo r
the black writer:6
1. Black writer s so far have represented "th e voic e o f th e edu -
cated Negro pleading with white America for justice."
2. Black writers have failed t o write for blacks.
3. Writings for black s have to deal with their culture "centere d
around the Church and the folklore o f the Negro people."
4. The writer has to use the ideology of his readers (in this case
black nationalism) to lead them to a larger vision.
5. "It i s throug h a Marxis t conceptio n o f realit y an d societ y
that th e maximum degree of freedom i n thought and feelin g
can be gained for the Negro writer."
6. After Marxis m ha s laid bar e "th e skeleto n o f society, " th e
writer should aim for a complex simplicity.
7. "Perspective i s that par t o f a poem, novel , o r play whic h a
writer never puts directly upon paper. "
8. The theme has to embody the whole black culture.
9. Black and white writers have to work together.
Wright's careful revision s in 4 , 6 , and 7 show his awareness of nar-
rowing doctrinair e tendencie s o f Zhdanovis m i n th e Communis t
Party. Hi s us e o f "blac k people " instead o f "blac k workers " and
point 9 show influence o f the Popular Front line.
Fire and Cloud is the las t o f th e fou r novella s in Uncle Tom's
Children. All of the m wer e writte n aroun d th e time the Blueprint
was published . Mor e tha n a collectio n o f storie s Uncle Tom's
Children was originally planne d a s a novel and then changed to " a
series o f shor t stories , al l havin g simila r treatment , them e an d
technical handling."7 Al l stories are subjected to a similar treatment
100
by adoptin g th e novelisti c conventio n o f chapters , probabl y th e
reason wh y Wrigh t prefer s t o cal l the m novella s o r lon g stories .
The technica l handlin g i s modelle d o n Hemingway ; less obviously ,
the themati c developmen t als o owe s somethin g t o In Our Time
(1925) i n tracin g a growin g awarenes s of th e protagonist s throug h
different age s o f life . Gile s characterize s th e themati c progressio n
in th e enlarge d editio n Uncle Tom's Children, five long stories
(1940) as follows :
There is Big Boy the youth who runs, then Mann the adult who runs, then
Silas who meets a heroic but lonely death , then Taylo r the minister who
will no t openl y endors e Marxis m bu t wh o act s out its implications, and
finally ther e is Sue who dies a martyred conver t to Communism and thus
triumphs over all the force s which have limited the characters in the first
four stories.
That th e firs t editio n (1938 ) end s wit h Fire and Cloud suggests the
importance o f tha t stor y an d it s las t lin e "Freedom belongs t the
strong" bu t th e origina l fou r storie s d o no t full y develo p th e
implication o f Communis m a s the wa y t o thi s freedom .
In Wright's own words :
The fourth stor y in the book came about a s a desire on my part to try to
depict i n dramati c fashio n th e relationshi p betwee n th e leader s o f both
races. Of course, among the Negro people, the preacher is the acknowledged
leader. The preacher speak s for th e people, he faces other races, he carries
their case s t o 'court, ' an d present s their pleas, and returns to them with
the verdic t o f goo d o r ill. This position carries with it a certain prestige,
and naturally, a Negro preacher would want to rear his son to be a preacher.
I represented th e preacher in a very crucial moment, a moment in a relief
crisis, whe n h e ha d to tell his starving flock that th e relief people would
give the m n o food . Wha t happen s t o him , and how his character under-
went a change, will be found in the fourth story 'Fire and Cloud.'
The tim e is roughly th e 1930' s (th e Grea t Depressio n an d th e loca l
relief program s o f th e Ne w Deal) ; th e place , a smal l tow n i n th e
South. A s in a medieva l moralit y pla y (o r T.S . Eliot' s Murder in
the Cathedral fo r tha t matter) , Reveren d Taylor' s conflic t abou t
whether o r no t t o joi n a Communis t sponsore d demonstratio n i s
externalized i n variou s voice s tryin g t o temp t o r persuad e him : a
church committe e o f poo r black s look s fo r hi s leadership ; Gree n
and Hadley , th e Communis t organizers , wan t hi m t o sponso r th e
march; Mayo r Bolton , th e Polic e Chief , an d th e hea d o f th e
101
"Industrial Squad " wan t him t o cal l off th e march; the Deacon s o f
the Churc h ar e militan t bu t divide d (Deaco n Smit h playin g Juda s
to Taylor' s Christ) ; si x whit e me n (possibl y member s o f th e
Industrial Squad ) try t o whi p him int o obedienc e an d prayer. Onl y
after th e whippin g ha s brough t th e fir e an d th e sig n h e ha s bee n
waiting for , doe s Taylo r becom e a tru e leade r o f hi s people : h e
stops hi s so n Jimm y fro m individua l violence , calm s hi s wife' s
fears, an d lead s the discourage d Deaco n Bonds , his church, and th e
poor white s int o th e successfu l demonstratio n fo r foo d relief . Th e
moral i s clea r and outspoken : "Al l th e will , all the strength , all th e
numbahs i s i n th e people! " an d (b y implication ) th e peopl e ar e
God. Uncl e To m piet y yield s t o socia l an d possibl y revolutionar y
awareness.
The stor y thu s combine s thre e o f th e stereotypes o f proletaria n
fiction outline d b y Walter Rideout :
(1) thos e centere d abou t a strike; (2) those concerned wit h the develop-
ment of an individual's class-consciousness and his conversion
to Commu-
nism; (3) those dealing with the 'bottom dogs,' the lowest layers of society;
and (4) those describing the decay of the middle class.9
The stor y play s mino r variation s o n (1) , (2) , (3) , an d add s th e
conventional sloganize d ending . I t als o follow s Gold' s objective s
fairly closel y an d add s som e o f th e point s mad e i n th e Blueprint:
use o f blac k cultur e (church , folklore), transformatio n o f religiou s
ideology int o a socialis t view , an d Marxis t clas s analysis. All in all ,
it obey s a se t o f conventiona l rules . Critic s hav e rate d Fire and
Cloud accordingl y low. 10 Bu t i t i s exactl y it s status as a blueprin t
story — in many way s typical fo r th e stat e o f th e short stor y i n th e
30's — that sharpen s th e aestheti c an d politica l problem s abou t
the blac k adaptatio n o f proletarian realism . In particular th e points
made b y th e Blueprint abou t "comple x simplicity " an d "perspec -
tive" raise interesting questions .
A clos e loo k a t th e firs t fiftee n line s o f Fire and Cloud reveal s
three element s tha t ad d up t o th e comple x simplicit y o f th e story :
speech, description , an d thought . I f we code speec h a s A, descrip -
tion a s B and though t a s C we get something like this:
" A naughts a naught..." (A )
As he walked his eyes looked vacantly on the dusty road, and the words
rolled without movement from his lips, each syllable floating softly up out
of the depths of his body. (B)
102
"N five a figger..."(A)
He pulle d ou t hi s pocke t handkerchie f an d moppe d hi s brows
without lessening his pace. (B)
"All fer the white man ..." (A)
He reached the top of the slope and paused, head down. (B)
"N non fer the nigger ..." (A)
His shoulders shook in half-laugh and half-shudder. He finished mopping
his brow and spat, as though to rid himself of some bitter thing. He thought.
(B) Thas the way its awways been! (C)
The whol e stor y ca n be analyzed as a concatenation o f these three
elements (i n fact , thi s fairly simpl e method ca n b e applied t o al-
most an y typ e o f fiction). 11 Certai n combination s o f thes e thre e
elements then emerge as particularly frequent :
1. Speech wit h descriptio n o r regula r dialogu e (AB ) ha s th e
highest frequency . A specia l subtyp e — th e cuttin g up o f a
verse, song or coheren t tex t b y inserting description (AB ) as
in the example above — occurs only four times in the story.
2. Description wit h though t o r interior monologue (BC) has the
second highes t frequency . Th e possibl e combinatio n A C
occurs only twice in the story.
If w e ma p thes e combinations into th e thirtee n chapter s o f th e
story, certai n structure s emerge . Dialogu e (AB ) dominate s i n all
chapters excep t I and IX . This parallel between I and IX is furthe r
underlined b y contras t i n though t (C ) an d descriptio n (B) . Th e
chapters usually ope n with speech or description (except IV, VIII)
and en d i n descriptio n (significan t exception s XII , XIII) . Th e
chapters follo w eac h othe r "i n dramati c fashion " (ente r o r exi t a
person). S o the though t opening s in I V and VII I follo w fro m th e
descriptive endings in III and VII (BC combination).
Within th e individua l chapter s certai n structure s ar e equall y
significant. Th e decompositio n o f th e verse in the first lines of the
story i s mirrored no t onl y i n th e titl e son g in XII I but also in the
prayer towar d th e en d o f VIII . Th e dialogu e i s usuall y uninter -
rupted b y interior monologu e bu t th e directio n o f th e discussio n
in IV, VII, VIII turns on pivotal thoughts of Taylor.
Description (B) carries (together with the final hymn) the central
symbolism: th e fir e o f th e inflicte d wound s is the sign Taylor has
been waitin g for ; i t lead s t o th e "pregnan t cloud " (XIII ) o f th e
marching men . Th e stor y run s fro m sunse t (I ) to sunris e (XIII) .
The fir e i s whipped int o Taylo r b y night, the "cloud" marches by
103
day. Description , usuall y preparin g fo r though t o r dramatizin g
dialogue, rises from stati c settings to individual gestures and reaches
its climax in collective action (I, IX, XIII).
Thought (C ) implement s thi s symbolis m throug h Taylor' s
growing awarenes s o f th e nee d fo r collectiv e action . Taylor' s
thought i s couche d i n biblica l imager y o f Samson , Chris t an d
Moses wh o le d hi s peopl e ou t o f Egyptia n bondag e followin g a
pillar o f fir e an d a cloud. I n th e en d eve n Go d become s an image
for th e people : "Gaw d ai n n o lie! He ain n o lie! ... Freedom be-
longs t the strong." Taylo r has made the first step to a fuller under-
standing o f societ y bu t h e stops one ste p shor t o f Marxism. (This
is probably wh y Wrigh t added Bright and Morning Star a s a fitter
ending to Uncle Tom's Children in 1940. ) Thought usually follow s
description an d i s interrupte d b y speec h in th e earlie r parts, bu t
becomes an integrated par t o f actio n i n XII I (AB C instead o f BC
or AC).
Speech (A ) finall y dramatize s th e "rea l conflic t o f me n an d
women." Th e position s take n ar e full y argued ; the fina l mora l is
embedded i n speec h an d confirme d b y precedin g action. The fire-
whipping free s Taylor' s speec h fro m social , religious or situational
constraints an d link s i t t o mor e painfu l bu t true r level s o f hi s
thought. Underlying the superficial simplicit y of the story is a fairly
complex structur e o f element s tha t suppor t th e themati c progres-
sion fro m passiv e individualis t meditatio n t o collectiv e socia l
action.12
The secon d problem , tha t o f perspective , ca n als o b e bette r
understood throug h thi s structura l method , i f w e analyz e th e
distribution o f Blac k Englis h an d Standar d Englis h (SE ) over th e
three components , speec h (A) , descriptio n (B ) an d though t (C) .
Following th e Blueprint an d Hemingway , Wrigh t eliminate s al l
personal reference s t o narrato r an d reade r withi n the third person
narrative. The partisan poin t o f view and th e manipulatio n of the
reader, however, ar e obvious and determined by far more than the
fact that the only thought reproduced is Taylor's.
Black an d whit e speec h — i n accordanc e wit h realis t conven -
tions — ar e clearl y distinguishe d i n dialogue . Blac k speech dom -
inates an d i s agai n differentiate d i n variou s situations: ritualize d
prayer an d respons e (III) , spontaneou s discussio n wit h black s
(VIII) an d a restricted cod e wit h white s (VI) , that clearl y reveal s
the underlyin g socia l constraints. (Thu s Taylor add s "suh " t o hi s
104
sentences, whe n h e addresse s Bolton ; Bolto n call s Taylo r "Dan "
instead o f "Reverend") . Th e typograph y tend s t o transcrib e th e
rich variet y i n emphasis , loudnes s an d intonatio n o f Blac k
English.
Blac k an d whit e speec h ar e transliterate d withou t apos -
trophes: the y ar e not deficien t state s of SE .
Thought, whethe r presente d a s direc t interio r monologu e o r in-
directly reporte d b y th e narrator , i s reproduce d partl y i n Blac k
English an d partl y i n SE . Thi s distinctio n deserve s som e close r
scrutiny. In som e passage s S E reproductio n o f though t seem s t o
function a s a transitio n fro m descriptio n t o though t throug h
imagination a s in : "Fo r a momen t a n arra y o f sof t blac k face s
hovered befor e hi s eyes . N whu t ki n A h tel l em? " (I) . Bu t thi s
explanation doe s no t accoun t fo r som e lon g passage s o f though t
reproduced i n S E (I , IX) . Thes e passages together wit h th e centra l
whipping scen e ar e reall y th e ke y t o th e poin t o f vie w take n b y
the autho r an d suppose d t o b e take n b y th e reade r o f th e story .
The si x whit e me n tortur e Taylo r an d forc e hi m t o pray . Th e
point i s ironi c an d crucial : obedienc e t o whit e supremac y an d
praying "Ou r Father " ar e on e an d th e same . The archaic languag e
of Ou r Fathe r i s i n extrem e contras t wit h th e descriptio n o f th e
whipping and Taylor' s genuine feeling :
"Ooour Fffather... "
The whip cut hard, whick! pouring fire and fire again.
"Have mercy, Lawd!" he screamed.
"Pray, nigger! Pray like you mean it!"
"... wwwhich aaaaart in hheaven .. . hhhallowed bb e Tttthy nname ... "
The whip struck, whick! "Ahm prayin, Mmmmistah!"
The pastora l reminiscene s i n Ol d Testamen t languag e (I ) ar e als o
false consciousness , whit e consciousness . Wrigh t make s thi s clea r
by bookis h capital s an d abrup t shif t int o Blac k Englis h whe n
Taylor begins to thin k o f th e Communist position :
... i t wa s that jo y an d wil l an d oneness in him that Go d had spoken to
when He had called him to preach His word, to save His black people, to
lead them , t o guid e them , t o b e a shepher d t o hi s flock . Bu t no w th e
whole thing was giving way, crumbling in his hands, right before his eyes.
And everytime h e tried to think of some way out, of some way to stop it,
he saw wide grey eyes behind icily white spectacles. He mopped his brow
again. Mabbe Hadley n Greens right...