32. Croucher, Death and Dying, 56, 238, 290.
33. Ibid., 243.
34. Steve Olson, Mapping Human History: Genes, Race, and Our Common Origins (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002), 97; Parker Pearson, The Archaeology of Death and Burial, 158.
35. Croucher, Death and Dying, 36, 41, 213.
36. Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods, 81.
37. Croucher, Death and Dying, 94–95; Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods, 113. It should be noted that plastered skulls were not unique to people in southwest Asia during the agricultural revolution and have occasionally been found elsewhere in the world. For example, in early 2012, a plastered skull from early twentieth-century Papua New Guinea was on display at the Musee du Quai Branly in Paris.
38. Jacquetta Hawkes, The Atlas of Early Man (New York: St. Martin’s, 1976), 41; Michael Balter, The Goddess and the Bull: Çatalhöyük: An Archeological Journey to the Dawn of Civilization (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2006), 282, quoting Kathleen Kenyon, Digging Up Jericho; Croucher, Death and Dying, 152–153.
39. Croucher, Death and Dying, 143, 145, 214; Parker Pearson, The Archaeology of Death and Burial, 159.
40. Parker Pearson, The Archaeology of Death and Burial, 161; Schmidt, Göblecki Tepe, 38; Croucher, Death and Dying, 45, 124; “The Nahal Hemar Mask,” Current World Archeology 66 (2014): 66; H.-D. Bienert, “The Er-Ram Stone Mask at the Palestine Exploration Fund, London,” Oxford Journal of Archaeology 9 (1990): 257–261.
41. Croucher, Death and Dying, 150.
42. Ibid., 47; Simmons, The Neolithic Revolution in the Near East, 154–155.
43. Hawkes, The Atlas of Early Man, 41; Balter, The Goddess and the Bull, 42.
44. M. Balter, “The Seeds of Civilization,” Smithsonian, May 2005, 68–74; Hawkes, The Atlas of Early Man, 41–42.
45. Croucher, Death and Dying, 111, 188; Wenke and Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory 332–333; Balter, The Goddess and the Bull, 30, 37; Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods, 31; Hawkes, The Atlas of Early Man, 41.
46. Wenke and Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory, 333; Croucher, Death and Dying, 111.
47. McGovern, Uncorking the Past, 33.
48. Ibid., 40–41.
49. Michael E. Moseley, The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992), 86–87; T. D. Dillehay, J. Rossen, T. C. Andres et al., “Preceramic Adoption of Peanut, Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru,” Science 316 (2007): 1890–1893; Bellwood, First Farmers, 99; O. Hanotte, D. G. Bradley, J. W. Ochieng et al., “African Pastoralism: Genetic Imprints of Origins and Migrations,” Science 296 (2002): 336–339; P. C. Sereno, E. A. A. Garcea, H. Jousse et al., “Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change,” PLoS ONE 3 (2008): 1–22; Salima Ikram, Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt (London: Longman, 2003), 23; Kenneth L. Feder, The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human History (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 2000), 406–407.
50. Annemarie deWaal Malefijt, Religion and Culture: An Introduction to Anthropology of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 18–19; Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2:247.
51. Herbert Basedow, The Australian Aboriginal (Adelaide: F. W. Preece and Sons, 1925), http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oi08–007.
52. Edward L. Schieffelin and Robert Crittenden, Like People You See in a Dream: First Contact in Six Papuan Societies (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), 74, 101, 171, 222. See also Bob Connolly and Robin Anderson, First Contact: New Guinea’s Highlanders Encounter the Outside World (New York: Viking, 1987); and Edward Marriott, The Lost Tribe: A Harrowing Passage Into New Guinea’s Heart of Darkness (New York: Holt, 1996).
53. Schieffelin and Crittenden, Like People You See, 63, 92, 94; Croucher, Death and Dying, 125.
54. Cochran and Harpending, The 10,000 Year Explosion, 65; C. Haub, “How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?,” Population Research Bureau, www.prb.org/Articles/2002/HowManyPeopleHaveEverLivedonEarth.aspx.
55. George P. Murdoch, Ethnographic Atlas (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1967), 52 (the data can be accessed online); Guy Swanson, The Birth of the Gods (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960), 42, 56; F. L. Roes and M. Raymond, “Belief in Moralizing Gods,” Evolution and Human Behavior 24 (2003): 126–135; A. F. Shariff, “Big Gods Were Made for Big Groups,” Religion, Brain and Behavior 1 (2011): 89–93.
56. Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods, 112.
57. Parker Pearson, The Archaeology of Death and Burial, 164. See also Simmons, The Neolithic Revolution in the Near East, 157.
58. Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods, 112; Balter, The Goddess and the Bull, x, 37–39; I. Hodder, “Women and Men at Çatalhöyük,” Scientific American 290 (2004): 76–83; Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods, 32.
59. Balter, The Goddess and the Bull, 322.
60. “Ancestor Worship,” Encyclopedia Britannica (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1954), 1:888.
61. Guthrie, The Nature of Paleolithic Art, 405.
62. Georg F. Striedter, Principles of Brain Evolution (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2005), 333.
63. Paul E. Flechsig, Anatomie des menschlichen Gehirns und Rückenmarks auf myelogenetischer Grundlage (Leipzig: Thieme, 1920); N. Gogtay, J. N. Giedd, L. Lusk et al., “Dynamic Mapping of Human Cortical Development During Childhood Through Early Adulthood,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101 (2004): 8174–8179; J. N. Giedd, “Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Adolescent Brain,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021 (2004): 77–85; T. M. Preuss, “Evolutionary Specializations of Primate Brain Systems,” in Primate Origins: Adaptations and Evolution, ed. Matthew J. Ravosa and Marian Dagasto (New York: Springer, 2007), 625–675; John Allman, Evolving Brains (New York: Scientific American Library, 2000), 176; T. M. Preuss, “Primate Brain Evolution in Phylogenetic Context,” in Evolution of Nervous Systems, vol. 4, Primates, ed. Jon H. Kaas and Todd M. Preuss (Oxford: Elsevier, 2007), 1–34.
64. P. T. Schoenemann, M. J. Sheehan, and L. D. Glotzer, “Prefrontal White Matter Volume Is Disproportionately Larger in Humans Than in Other Primates,” Nature Neuroscience 8 (2005): 242–225.
7. GOVERNMENTS AND GODS
1. Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origin of Agricultural Societies (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005), 15; J. Nicholas Postgate, Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History (London: Routledge, 1992), 112.
2. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, 206–221; Samuel N. Kramer, The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 73–111.
3. Brian Fagan, People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004), 362–363; Kramer, The Sumerians, 73, 135.
4. Kramer, The Sumerians, 73–74.
5. Thorkild Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), 26.
6. Ibid., 110–111.
7. Ibid., 20, 36.
8. Ibid., 27; Kramer, The Sumerians, 110–111; Patrick E. McGovern, Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 98; Glyn Edmund Daniel, The First Civilizations: The Archaeology of Their Origins (New York: Crowell, 1968), 74. Other English words said to have been derived from Mesopotamian, specifically Sumerian, language origins include gypsum, myrrh, saffron, and naphtha.
9. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness, 47, 36.
10. Kramer, The Sumerians, 132, 134, 154; George Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed. (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1964; New York: Penguin, 1992), 100; Julian Jaynes, The Ori
gins of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), 162.
11. Kramer, The Sumerians, 126; M. Dirda, “In Search of Gilgamesh, the Epic Hero of Ancient Babylonia,” Washington Post Book World, March 4, 2007; N. K. Sandars, The Epic of Gilgamesh, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 1972), 101–102. Gilgamesh is thought to have been a real ruler who ruled in Sumer about 4,700 years ago.
12. Sandars, The Epic of Gilgamesh, 102, 106, 107, 115, 119.
13. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness, 20, 73.
14. Ibid., 83.
15. Roux, Ancient Iraq, 169; R. L. Zettler, “The Royal Cemetery of Ur,” in Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur, ed. Richard L. Zettler and Lee Horne (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum, 1998), 21–32, at 25; D. P. Hansen, “Art of the Royal Tombs of Ur: A Brief Interpretation,” in Zettler and Horne, Treasures, 47.
16. R. L. Zettler, “The Burials of a King and Queen,” in Zettler and Horne, Treasures, 35–36; Roux, Ancient Iraq, 137.
17. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, 109, 118, 120; Kramer, The Sumerians, 117–118, 123; Roux, Ancient Iraq, 99.
18. Kramer, The Sumarians, 136–137; Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, 114–115, 135–136.
19. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, 126–127; Kramer, The Sumarians, 142; Roux, Ancient Iraq, 132.
20. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness, 78; Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, 252.
21. Roux, Ancient Iraq, 138–139, 141–142.
22. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia, 133, 253; Kramer, The Sumarians, 261, 90.
23. Roux, Ancient Iraq, 23. Xenophanes is cited by Clyde Kluckhohn, “Foreword,” in Reader in Comparative Religion: An Anthropological Approach, ed. William A. Lessa and Evon Z. Vogt (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), v–vi; Baron de La Brède Montesquieu, Lettres Persones (Paris: Alphonse Lemerre, 1721), 59.
24. Roux, Ancient Iraq, 85.
25. Robert J. Wenke and Deborah I. Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory: Mankind’s First Three Million Years (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 382–383.
26. Ibid., 389–390; Edith Hamilton, The Greek Way to Western Civilization (New York: Norton, 1930), 13; Salima Ikram, Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt (London: Longman, 2003), ix.
27. Ikram, Death and Burial, 152.
28. Kenneth L. Feder, The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human History (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 2000), 402; Ikram, Death and Burial, 152–153.
29. A complete description of the mummification process can be found in Ikram, Death and Burial, and in Carol Andrews, Egyptian Mummies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984).
30. Andrews, Egyptian Mummies, 83; Ikram, Death and Burial, 81–82.
31. Andrews, Egyptian Mummies, 30, 72.
32. Ikram, Death and Burial, 132, 200; McGovern, Uncorking the Past, 167.
33. Ikram, Death and Burial, 128–131; Andrews, Egyptian Mummies, 75, 79.
34. Bruce G. Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 409.
35. Feder, The Past in Perspective, 409–410; Wenke and Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory, 417; A. Lawler, “The Indus Script—Write or Wrong?,” Science 306 (2004): 2026–2029. See also Burjor Avari, India: The Ancient Past (New York: Routledge, 2007), 44–45.
36. Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 213; Mortimer Wheeler, The Indus Civilization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), 89; Avari, India, 48.
37. Allchin and Allchin, The Rise of Civilization, 217, 238, 305; A. Lawler, “Boring No More, a Trade-Savvy Indus Emerges,” Science 320 (2008): 1276–1281.
38. David W. Anthony, ed., The Lost World of Old Europe: The Danube Valley, 5000–3500 BC (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 29.
39. Marija Gimbutas, The Gods and Goddesses of Old Europe: Myths and Cult Images (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 11, 195; Douglas W. Bailey, “The Figurines of Old Europe,” in Anthony, The Lost World, 113–127.
40. The finds at Varna are described by C. Renfrew, “Varna and the Social Context of Early Metallurgy,” Antiquity 52 (1978): 199–203; C. Renfrew, “Varna and the Emergence of Wealth in Prehistoric Europe,” in The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, ed. Arjun Appadurai (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 141–168; Mike Parker Pearson, The Archaeology of Death and Burial (College Station: Texas A and M University Press, 1999), 79; and J. N. Wilford, “A Lost European Culture, Pulled from Obscurity,” New York Times, December 1, 2009.
41. Renfrew, “Varna and the Emergence of Wealth.”
42. C. Desdemaines-Hugon, Stepping Stones: A Journey Through the Ice Age Caves of the Dordogne (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 144–145; J. O’Shea and M. Zvelebil, “Oleneostrovski Mogilnik: Reconstructing the Social and Economic Organization of Prehistoric Foragers in Northern Russia,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3 (1984): 1–40.
43. M. J. O’Kelly, “The Megalithic Tombs of Ireland,” in The Megalithic Monuments of Western Europe, ed. Colin Renfrew (London: Thames and Hudson, 1983), 113–126, at 113; R. Chapman, “The Emergence of Formal Disposal Areas and the ‘Problem’ of Megalithic Tombs in Prehistoric Europe,” in The Archeology of Death, ed. Robert Chapman, Ian Kinnes, and Klaves Randborg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 71.
44. Jean-Pierre Mohen, Standing Stones: Stonehenge, Carnac, and the World of Megaliths (London: Thames and Hudson, 1999), 82–83.
45. Ibid., 55.
46. C. Renfrew, “Introduction: The Megalithic Builders of Western Europe,” in Renfrew, The Megalithic Monuments, 8–17, 9; Mohen, Standing Stones, 57; P.-R. Giot, “The Megaliths of France,” in Renfrew, The Megalithic Monuments, 18–28, 26–27. See also B. Bramanti, M. G. Thomas, W. Haak et al., “Genetic Discontinuity Between Local Hunter-Gatherers and Central Europe’s First Farmers,” Science 326 (2009): 137–140.
47. Wenke and Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory, 462.
48. M. Balter, “Monumental Roots,” Science 343 (2014): 18–23; Roff Smith, “Before Stonehenge,” National Geographic, August 2014, 26–51.
49. Caroline Malone, The Prehistoric Monuments of Avebury (Swindon: National Trust, 1994), 38, 39, 47.
50. Ibid., 21–25.
51. Ibid., 10–13.
52. Mark Gillings and Joshua Pollard, Avebury (London: Gerald Duckworth, 2004), 72–73.
53. Aubrey Burl, A Guide to the Stone Circles of Britain, Ireland and Brittany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 87.
54. Timothy Darvill, Long Barrows of the Cotswolds and Surrounding Areas (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2004), 165–168, 212; Malone, The Prehistoric Monuments, 29–32; Brian Hayden, Shamans, Sorcerers, and Saints (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 2003), 229.
55. Aubrey Burl, Prehistoric Stone Circles (Aylesbury: Shire, 1979), 10, 42; Gillings and Pollard, Avebury, 63–64.
56. Kwang-chih Chang, The Archeology of Ancient China, 4th ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 248; Wenke and Olszewski, Patterns in Prehistory, 432.
57. Robert H. Bellah, Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011), 250–251.
58. A. Lawler, “Beyond the Yellow River: How China Became China,” Science 325 (2009): 930–935; Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations, 422.
59. Feder, The Past in Perspective, 412; Chang, The Archeology of Ancient China, 255, 276; McGovern, Uncorking the Past, 51.
60. R. S. Solis, J. Haas, and W. Creamer, “Dating Caral, a Preceramic Site in the Supe Valley on the Central Coast of Peru,” Scien
ce 292 (2001): 723–726.
61. P. J. McDonnell, “Plaza in Peru May Be the Americas’ Oldest Urban Site,” Los Angeles Times, February 26, 2008; Richard L. Burger, Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992), 80.
62. Burger, Chavin, 35–36.
63. Solis et al., “Dating Caral.”
64. Ruth Shady Solis, Marco Machacuay Romero, Daniel Caceda Guillén et al., Caral, the Oldest Civilization in the Americas: 15 Years Unveiling Its History (Lima: Institute Nacional de Cultura, 2009), 46–53. See also Solis et al., “Dating Caral”; C. C. Mann, “Oldest Civilization in the Americas Revealed,” Science 307 (2005): 34–35; J. Haas and A. Ruiz, “Power and the Emergence of Complex Polities in the Peruvian Preceramic,” Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 14 (2005): 37–52; J. Haas and W. Creamer, “Crucible of Andean Civilization: The Peruvian Coast from 3000 to 1800 BC,” Current Anthropology 47 (2006): 745–775.
65. J. A. Lobell, “Atacama’s Decaying Mummies,” Archaeology, September–October 2015; Michael E. Moseley, The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992), 93–94, 144; Fagan, People of the Earth, 527.
66. H. Hoag, “Oldest Evidence of Andean Religion Found,” Nature, April 15, 2003, www.nature.com/news/2003/030415/full/news030414–4.html; Mann, “Oldest Civilization.”
67. Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 314; Theodosius Dobzhansky, The Biology of Ultimate Concern (New York: New American Library, 1967), 94, quoting Toynbee.
68. Burger, Chavin, 175, 149–150. See also Feder, The Past in Perspective, 378.
69. Moseley, The Incas and Their Ancestors, 155.
70. Karen Armstrong, The Great Transformation: The Beginning of Our Religious Traditions (New York: Knopf, 2006), 390.
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