by Sunil Amrith
53. Anthony Acciavatti, “Re-imagining the Indian Underground: A Biography of the Tubewell,” in Places of Nature in Ecologies of Urbanism, ed. Anne Rademacher and K. Sivaramakrishnan (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2017), 206–237, quotation on p. 207.
54. Tushaar Shah, Taming the Anarchy: Groundwater Governance in South Asia (New York: Routledge, 2008); Tushaar Shah, “Climate Change and Groundwater: India’s Opportunities for Mitigation and Adaptation,” Environmental Research Letters 4 (2009): 1–13.
55. Roger Revelle and V. Lakshminarayana, “Ganges Water Machine,” Science, n.s., 188 (1975): 611–616, quotation on p. 611; K. L. Rao, India’s Water Wealth: Its Assessment, Uses, and Projections (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1975).
56. Joshua Eisenman, “Building China’s 1970s Green Revolution: Responding to Population Growth, Decreasing Arable Land, and Capital Depreciation,” in China, Hong Kong, and the Long 1970s: Global Perspectives, ed. Priscilla Roberts and Odd Arne Westad (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 55–86.
57. Sigrid Schmalzer, Red Revolution, Green Revolution: Scientific Farming in Socialist China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), quotation on p. 13.
58. Francine Frankel, India’s Green Revolution: Economic Gains and Political Costs (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971); N. K. Dubash, Tubewell Capitalism: Groundwater Development and Agrarian Change in Gujarat (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002); Shah, “Climate Change and Groundwater.”
59. L. J. Walinsky, ed., Agrarian Reform As Unfinished Business: The Selected Papers of Wolf Ladejinsky (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1977); G. Rosen, “Obituary: Wolf Ladejinsky (1899–1975),” Journal of Asian Studies 36 (1976): 327–328.
60. Wolf Ladejinsky, “Drought in Maharashtra (Not in a Hundred Years),” typescript contained in World Bank Archives (WBA), file number 1167800, Drought Prone Areas Project—India—Correspondence vol. 1.
61. Jean Drèze, “Famine Prevention in India” (working paper 45, WIDER: United Nations University, Helsinki, 1988), 69–75.
62. John A. Young, “Physics of the Monsoon: The Current View,” in Monsoons, ed. Jay S. Fein and Pamela L. Stephens (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987), 211–243, quotation on p. 211; see the discussion of “moist processes” in Peter J. Webster, “Monsoons,” Scientific American 245 (1981): 108–119; on modeling, see Kirsten Hastrup and Martin Skrydstrup, eds., The Social Life of Climate Change Models: Anticipating Nature (London: Routledge, 2012).
63. Jacob Bjerknes, “A Possible Response of the Atmospheric Hadley Circulation to Equatorial Anomalies of Ocean Temperature,” Tellus 18 (1966): 820–829; Jacob Bjerknes, “Atmospheric Teleconnections from the Equatorial Pacific,” Journal of Physical Oceanography 97 (1969): 163–172.
64. P. J. Webster, H. R. Chang, and V. E. Toma, Tropical Meteorology and Climate (Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, in press), chapter 14.
65. R. A. Madden and P. R. Julian, “Detection of a 40–50 Day Oscillation in the Zonal Wind in the Tropical Pacific,” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 28 (1971): 702–770; R. A. Madden and P. R. Julian, “Description of Global-Scale Circulation Cells in the Tropics with a 40–50 Day Period,” Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 29 (1972): 1109–1123.
66. David M. Lawrence and Peter J. Webster, “The Boreal Summer Intraseasonal Oscillation: Relationship between Northward and Eastward Movement of Convection,” Journal of the Atmopheric Sciences 59 (2002): 1593–1606.
67. Adam Sobel, Storm Surge: Hurricane Sandy, Our Changing Climate, and Extreme Weather of the Past and Future (New York: Harper Wave, 2014), 9–20.
68. On MONEX, see Behrman, Assault, 64; Webster, Chang, and Toma, Tropical Meteorology, chapter 14.
69. C. S. Ramage, The Great Indian Drought of 1899, Occasional Paper, Aspen Instiute for Humanistic Studies, Program on Science, Technology, and Humanism (1977), quotations on pp. 4, 6.
70. Declaration of the Climate Conference (Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, 1979), 1.
CHAPTER NINE: STORMY HORIZONS
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2. Sumit Ganguly and Rahul Mukherjee, India Since 1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), chapter 3.
3. Anil Agarwal, Kalpana Sharma, and Ravi Chopra, The State of India’s Environment, 1982: A Citizens’ Report (New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1982), 20.
4. Naomi Oreskes, “The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change,” Science 306 (December 2004): 1686.
5. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability (Geneva: IPCC, 2014); World Bank, Turn Down the Heat: Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts, and the Case for Resilience (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2013).
6. Andreas Malm, The Progress of This Storm: Nature and Society in a Warming World (London: Verso, 2018), 5.
7. Angus Deaton, The Great Escape: Health, Wealth, and the Origins of Inequality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).
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9. Khushwant Singh, “The Indian Monsoon in Literature,” in Monsoons, ed. Jay S. Fein and Pamela L. Stephens (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987), 35–50, quotations on p. 48.
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13. Statistics from A. Vaidyanathan, Water Resources of India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2013); T. Shah, “Climate Change and Groundwater: India’s Opportunities for Mitigation and Adaptation,” Environmental Research Letters 4 (2009): 1–13, quotation on p. 3.
14. Meera Subramanian, A River Runs Again: India’s Natural World in Crisis, from the Barren Cliffs of Rajasthan to the Farmlands of Karnataka (New York: PublicAffairs, 2015), 9–66, on Punjab; on Gujarat, see David Hardiman, “The Politics of Water Scarcity in Gujarat,” in Amita Baviskar ed. Waterscapes: The Cultural Politics of a Natural Resource (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2006), 39–62.
15. Daniyal Mueenuddin, “Nawabdin Electrician,” in In Other Rooms, Other Wonders (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009), 13–28, quotation on p. 13.
16. Jane Qiu, “China Faces Up to Groundwater Crisis,” Nature 466 (2010): 308.
17. David A. Pietz, The Yellow River: The Problem of Water in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 264–265; M. Webber et al., “The Yellow River in Transition,” Environmental Science and Policy 11 (2008): 422–429.
18. M. Rodell, I. Velicogna, and J. S. Famiglietti, “Satellite-Based Estimates of Groundwater Depletion in India,” Nature 460 (2009): 999–1002.
19. M. K. Gandhi, “Some Mussooree Reminiscences,” Harijan, June 23, 1946, 198; Ramachandra Guha, The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Political Protest in the Himalaya (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989).
20. Kathleen D. Morrison, “Dharmic Projects, Imperial Reservoirs, and New Temples of India: An Historical Perspective on Dams in India,” Conservation and Society 8 (2010): 184.
21. Ambedkar’s statement was delivered in India’s Constituent Assembly on November 4, 1948; for research on the complexity of water management in pre-modern India, see David Mosse, The
Rule of Water: Statecraft, Ecology, and Collective Action in South Asia (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003); Haruka Yanagisawa, A Century of Change: Caste and Irrigated Lands in Tamil Nadu, 1860s–1970s (New Delhi: Manohar, 1996); for an overview that is skeptical of the idea that colonial rule was an absolute ecological watershed, see Mahesh Rangarajan, “Environmental Histories of India: Of States, Landscapes, and Ecologies,” in The Environment and World History, ed. Kenneth Pomeranz and Edmund Burke III (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 229–254.
22. Agarwal, Chopra, and Sharma, The State of India’s Environment, 1982; A. Agarwal and Sunita Narain, eds., The State of India’s Environment, 1984–85: A Second Citizens’ Report (New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1985), quotation from “Statement of Shared Concern”; The Centre for Science and Environment also produced a documentary film on water harvesting: Harvest of Rain, dir. Sanjay Kak (1995), Centre for Science and Environment, 1995; Tim Forsyth, “Anil Agarwal,” in Fifty Key Thinkers on Development, ed. D. Simon (London: Routledge, 2005), 9–14.
23. Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution: Third World Agriculture, Ecology and Politics (London: Zed Books, 1991), 11.
24. The authors of the first Indian report cite the inspiration of Penang in their preface: Agarwal, Chopra, and Sharma, State of India’s Environment, 1982; on the Third World Network, see its website, accessed February 1, 2018, www.twn.my/twnintro.htm; on the Consumers’ Association of Penang, see Matthew Hilton, Prosperity for All: Consumer Activism in an Era of Globalization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009); on the rise and fall of the New International Economic Order, see Nils Gilman, “The New International Economic Order: A Reintroduction,” Humanity (Spring 2015): 1–16.
25. Anil Agarwal and Sunita Narain, Global Warming in an Unequal World: A Case of Environmental Colonialism (Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1991).
26. P. Sainath, Everybody Loves a Good Drought: Stories from India’s Poorest Districts (New Delhi: Penguin, 1996), quotations on pp. 319–320.
27. Aseem Shrivastava and Ashish Kothari, Churning the Earth: The Making of Global India (New Delhi: Viking, 2012), 176–183; P. Sainath, “Farm Suicides: A 12-Year Saga,” The Hindu, January 25, 2010; P. Sainath, “The Largest Wave of Suicides in History,” The Hindu, February 16, 2009; Akta Kaushal, “Confronting Farmer Suicides in India,” Alternatives 40 (2016): 46–62.
28. Gyansham Shah, Harsh Mander, Sukhadeo Thorat, Satish Deshpande, and Amita Baviskar, Untouchability in Rural India (New Delhi: Sage, 2006), 75.
29. Agarwal, Chopra, and Sharma, State of India’s Environment, 1982, 20–23.
30. Darryl D’Monte, Temples of Tombs? Industry versus Environment, Three Controversies (New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1985), 15.
31. M. C. Mehta v. Union of India (Kanpur Tanneries), All India Reporter (1988), SC 1037; M. C. Mehta v. Union of India (Municipalities), All India Reporter (1988), SC 1115: cases cited in Environmental Law and Policy in India: Cases, Materials and Statutes, ed. Shyam Divan and Armin Rosencranz (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 210–225. Mehta’s biography from the M. C. Mehta Foundation, http://mcmef.org/m-c-mehta/; details of his career are available in his citation for the Goldman Prize, which he won in 1996, www.goldmanprize.org/recipient/mc-mehta/.
32. Judith Shapiro, China’s Environmental Challenges (London: Polity, 2012), 112–118.
33. Ma Jun, China’s Water Crisis, trans. Nancy Yang Liu and Lawrence R. Sullivan (Norwalk, CT: EastBridge/International Rivers, 2004), quotations on pp. vii–xi, 79–80; first published in Chinese as Zhongguo shui weiji (Beijing: China Environmental Sciences Publishing House, 1999).
34. “India—Mr McNamara’s Meeting with the Indian Finance Minister,” Memorandum of September 27, 1978: WBA, Contacts with Member Countries: India—Correspondence 09, folder 1771081.
35. See the entry on Medha Patkar on the website of the Goldman Environmental Prize, which she won in 1992. Accessed March 1, 2018, www.goldmanprize.org/recipient/medha-patkar/.
36. “Bankwide Lessons Learned from the Experience with the India Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) Project,” World Bank report, May 19, 1993, accessed March 19, 2018, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/221941467991015938/Lessons-learned-from-Narmada.
37. Smita Narula, “The Story of Narmada Bachao Andolan: Human Rights in the Global Economy and the Struggle against the World Bank,” New York University Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers 106 (2008); Balakrishnan Rajagopal, “The Role of Law in Counter-hegemonic Globalization and Global Legal Pluralism: Lessons from the Narmada Valley Struggle in India,” Leiden Journal of International Law 18 (2005): 345–355; Alf Gunvald Nilsen, Dispossession and Resistance in India: The River and the Rage (London: Routledge, 2010). Modi’s comments quoted in “54 Years On, Modi Opens Sardar Sarovar Dam,” FirstPost, September 18, 2017, accessed March 20, 2018, www.firstpost.com/politics/sardar-sarovar-dam-inaugurated-narendra-modi-alleges-conspiracy-to-stop-project-congress-calls-it-election-gimmick-4054251.html.
38. A synthesis of the research of the 1980s and 1990s appears in Satyajit Singh, Taming the Waters: The Political Economy of Large Dams in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), especially 133–163 on ecological consequences.
39. On displacement, see Sanjoy Chakravorty, The Price of Land: Acquisition, Conflict, Consequence (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2013), especially Appendix A9.2; and Singh, Taming the Rivers, 182–203. For a global perspective on dam displacement, see International Committee of the Red Cross, World Disasters Report 2012: Focus on Forced Migration and Displacement (Geneva: Red Cross, 2012). On the disproportionate impact of dams on marginalized communities, see Esther Duflo and Rohini Pande, “Dams,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (2007): 601–646.
40. Arundhati Roy, “The Greater Common Good,” Outlook, May 24, 1999; for a critique, see Ramachandra Guha, “The Arun Shourie of the Left,” The Hindu, November 26, 2000.
41. Vairamuthu, Kallikaatu Ithihaasam (Chennai: Thirumagal, 2001).
42. Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision Making. The Report of the World Commission on Dams (London: Earthscan, 2000).
43. Ramaswamy R. Iyer, “The Story of a Troubled Relationship,” Water Alternatives 6 (2013): 168–176, quotations on pp. 169, 175; on Iyer’s career, see Amita Baviskar’s obituary: “He Watered the Arid Fields of Administration with Intellectual Rigour and Honesty,” The Wire, September 11, 2015, last accessed May 2, 2018, https://thewire.in/environment/watering-the-arid-fields-of-administration-with-intellectual-rigour-and-honesty.
44. Ravi S. Jha, “India’s River Linking Project Mired in Cost Squabbles and Politics,” The Guardian, February 5, 2013, accessed May 4, 2018, www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/feb/05/india-river-link-plan-progress-slow; Supreme Court of India. Writ Petition (Civil) No. 512 of 2002 in Re. Networking of Rivers, judgment, accessed May 14, 2018, http://courtnic.nic.in/supremecourt/temp/512200232722012p.txt; Y. A. Alagh, G. Pangare, and B. Gujja, Interlinking of Rivers in India: Overview and Ken-Betwa Link (New Delhi: Academic Foundation, 2006).
45. Ramaswamy R. Iyer, “River Linking Project: A Disquieting Judgment,” Economic and Political Weekly, April 7, 2012, 33–40, quotations on p. 37.
46. Meera Subramanian, A River Runs Again: India’s Natural World in Crisis, from the Barren Cliffs of Rajasthan to the Farmlands of Karnataka (New York: PublicAffairs, 2015).
47. “China Has Built the World’s Largest Water Diversion Project,” The Economist, April 5, 2018; on the scheme in historical perspective, see Kenneth Pomeranz, “The Great Himalayan Watershed: Water Shortages, Mega-Projects and Environmental Politics in China, India, and Southeast Asia,” Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 7 (2009), accessed February 1, 2018, https://apjjf.org/-Kenneth-Pomeranz/3195/article.html.
48. C. J. Vörösmarty et al, “Battling to Save the World’s River Deltas,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 65, 2 (2009): 31–43; James Syvitski, “Sinking Deltas D
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49. Pomeranz, “The Great Himalayan Watershed.”
50. Shripad Dharmadhikary, Mountains of Concrete: Dam Building in the Himalayas (Berkeley: International Rivers, 2008); Douglas Hill, “Trans-boundary Water Resources and Uneven Development: Crisis Within and Beyond Contemporary India,” South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 36 (2013): 243–257; John Vidal, “China and India ‘Water Grab’ Dams Put Ecology of the Himalayas in Danger,” The Observer, August 10, 2013.
51. Dharmadhikary, Mountains of Concrete.
52. Dharmadhikary, Mountains of Concrete; R. Grumbine and M. Pandit, “Threats from India’s Himalaya Dams,” Science 339 (2013): 36–37; Rohan D’Souza, “Pulses Against Volumes: Transboundary Rivers and Pan-Asian Connectivity,” in Heading East: Security, Trade, and Environment Between India and Southeast Asia, ed. Karen Stoll Farrell and Sumit Ganguly (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016); Jane Qiu, “Flood of Protest Hits Indian Dams,” Nature 492 (2012): 15–16; Fan Xiao quoted in Charlton Lewis, “China’s Great Dam Boom: A Major Assault on Its Rivers,” Yale Environment 360, November 4, 2013, accessed March 1, 2018, https://e360.yale.edu/features/chinas_great_dam_boom_an_assault_on_its_river_systems.
53. T. Bolch et al., “The State and Fate of the Himalayan Glaciers,” Science 336 (2012): 310–314; World Bank, Turn Down the Heat; Dexter Filkins, “The End of Ice: Exploring a Himalayan Glacier,” New Yorker, April 4, 2016.
54. S. P. Xie et al., “Towards Predictive Understanding of Regional Climate Change,” Nature Climate Change 5 (2015): 921–930.
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