Acknowledgments
A tribute of special gratitude goes to Robin Parry, who invited me to write this book many years ago, and without whom this work would definitely not be here. He also added the beginnings of several sections, to offer a survey of the dates and biography of theologians (and was patient enough during the two years of a partial blindness owing to vitreous and incipient retinal detachment, which is ongoing and we hope will subside soon!).
I am also deeply grateful to Richard Bauckham, who graciously accepted to honor me by writing the foreword to this work, to the colleagues who wrote honouring endorsements, and to all friends and colleagues with whom I have discussed the topic of universal salvation in Christianity over many years on a number of occasions. They are too many to be named and I would easily risk forgetting some, which would be too unfair.
I would like to thank heartily, as ever, all the intelligent, upright, and affectionate friends and colleagues, all of them great scholars and wonderful persons, who, around the world, gladden me in my research and academic engagement, and have continued to do so for over twenty years of scientific work at the academic level by now. Also, I must profoundly thank all those who assist me in all ways, at home, at University, and everywhere, and have done so for many years. Without them I simply couldn’t manage to live and work.
Finally, not last, but first and foremost, in awe I thank the admirable and incredible help of Heaven, on which all of my professional work and my very life has entirely depended.
Abbreviations
Adv. eos qui cast. aegre fer. / Gregory of Nyssa, Adversus eos qui castigationes aegre ferunt / Against Those Who Cannot Bear Reproaches
AH / Irenaeus of Lyons, Adversus Haereses / Against Heresies
Amb. / Maximus the Confessor, Ambigua / Ambiguous Points
Ant. / Josephus, Antiquitates Iudaicae / Jewish Antiquities
Apol. c. Hier. / Rufinus, Apologia contra Hieronymum / Apology against Jerome
Aut. / Theophilus of Antioch, Ad Autolycum / To Autolycus
Bibl. / Photius, Bibliotheca / Library
Car. / Maximus the Confessor, Capita de Caritate / Chapters on Love
Carm. / Gregory Nazianzen, Carmina / Poems
C. Aster. / Marcellus of Ancyra, Contra Asterium / Against Asterius
CC / Origen, Contra Celsum / Against Celsus
CCG / Corpus Christianorum, series Graeca
CD / Augustine, De Civitate Dei / The City of God
C. Eun. Or. Prod. / Gregory Nazianzen, Contra Eunomium Oratio Prodialexis / Oration against Eunomius
C. Iul. / Augustine, Contra Iulianum / Against Julian
C. Marc. / Eusebius, Contra Marcellum / Against Marcellus of Ancyra
Comm. in Eccl. / Didymus of Alexandria, Commentarii in Ecclesiasten / Commentary on Ecclesiastes
Comm. in Eph. / Jerome, Commentarii in Epistulam ad Ephesios / Commentary on Ephesians
Comm. in Gal. / Theodore of Mopsuestia, Commentarii in Epistulam ad Galatas / Commentary on Galatians
Comm. in I-II Cor. / Didymus of Alexandria, Commentarii in Epistulas I–II ad Corinthios / Commentary on 1–2 Corinthians
Comm. in Io. / Origen, Commentarii in Ioannem / Commentary on John
Comm. in Iob / Didymus of Alexandria, Commentarii in Iob / Commentary on Job
Comm. in Is. / Eusebius of Caesarea / Basil of Caesarea, Commentarii in Isaiam / Commentary on Isaiah
Comm. in Matt. / Origen, Commentarii in Matthaeum / Commentary on Matthew
Comm. in Ps. / Eusebius or Origen (or another author, indicated in the text), Commentarii in Psalmos / Commentary on Psalms
Comm. in Ps. 20–21; 35–39 / Didymus of Alexandria, Commentarii in Psalmos XX–XXI; XXXV–XXXIX / Commentary on Psalms 20–21; 35–39
Comm. in Rom. / Origen, Commentarii in Epistulam ad Romanos / Commentary on Romans
Comm. in Rom. Fr. / Origen, Commentariorum in Epistulam ad Romanos Fragmenta / Fragments from the Commentary on Romans
Comm. in Zach. / Didymus of Alexandria, Commentarii in Zachariam / Commentary on Zachary
C. Ruf. / Jerome, Contra Rufinum / Against Rufinus
C. usur. / Gregory of Nyssa, Contra Usurarios / Against Usurers
DE / Eusebius of Caesarea, Demonstratio Evangelica / Demonstration of the Gospel
De an. / Gregory of Nyssa, De Anima et Resurrectione / On the Soul and the Resurrection
De beat. / Gregory of Nyssa, De Beatitudinibus / On the Beatitudes
De benef. / Gregory of Nyssa, De beneficentia / On Doing Good
Decal. / Philo of Alexandria, De Decalogo / On the Decalogue
Decr. / Athanasius, De decretis Nicaenae Synodi / On the Decisions of the Council of Nicaea
De gest. Pel. / Augustine, De gestis Pelagii / On Pelagius’ Deeds
De haer. / Augustine, De haeresibus / On heresies
De hom. op. / Gregory of Nyssa, De hominis opificio / On the Creation of the Human Being
De Incarn. / Athanasius / Marcellus of Ancyra (?), De Incarnatione et contra Arianos / On the Incarnation, Against the Arians
De mor. / Augustine, De moribus Ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum / On the Customs of the Catholic Church and on the Customs of the Manichaeans
De mort. / Gregory of Nyssa, De mortuis / On the Dead
De orat. / Origen, De oratione / On Prayer
De or. dom. / Gregory of Nyssa, De oratione dominica / On the Lord’s Prayer
De perf. / Gregory of Nyssa, De perfectione / On Christian Perfection
De praed. / John the Scot Eriugena, De praedestinatione / On Predestination
De praed. adv. Joh. Erig. / Prudentius of Troyes, De praedestinatione adversus Johannem Erigenam / On Predestination against John Eriugena
De res. / Methodius, De resurrectione / On the Resurrection
De Spir. S. / Basil, De Spiritu Sancto / On the Holy Spirit
De trid. sp. / Gregory of Nyssa, De tridui spatio / On the Three-Day Interval between Christ’s Death and Resurrection
De v. Mos. / Gregory of Nyssa, De Vita Mosis / On the Life of Moses
De virg. / Gregory of Nyssa, De virginitate / On Virginity
Dial. cum Her. / Origen, Dialogus cum Heraclide; Dialogue with Heraclides
DN / Ps. Dionysius the Areopagite, De divinis nominibus / On the Names of God
Eccl. theol. / Eusebius, Ecclesiastica theologia / The Theology of the Church
Ecl. Proph. / Clement of Alexandria, Eclogae Propheticae / Prophetic Excerpts
Ench. / Augustine, Enchiridion / Handbook
EH / Pseudo-Dionysius, De ecclesiastica hierarchia / On the Hierarchy of the Church
Ep. / Basil of Caesarea (or another author specified in the text), Epistulae / Letters
Ep. ad Anat. / Evagrius Ponticus, Epistula ad Anatolium / Letter to Anatolius
Ep. ad Mel. / Evagrius Ponticus, Epistula ad Melaniam / Letter to Melania or Great Letter
Ep. ad Sm. / Ignatius of Antioch, Epistula ad Smyrnaeos / Letter to Christians in Smyrnae
Ep. fidei / Evagrius, Epistula fidei / Letter on Faith
Exp. in Prov. / Origen, Expositio in Proverbios / Explanation of Proverbs
Exh. ad Mart. / Origen, Exhortatio ad Martyrium / Exhortation to Martyrdom
Fr. in Iob / Origen, Fragmenta in Iob / Fragments on Job
Fr. in Matt. / Origen, Fragmenta in Matthaeum / Fragments on Matthew
Fr. in Prov. / Origen, Fragmenta in Proverbios / Fragments on Proverbs
Fr. in Ps. / Didymus of Alexandria, Fragmenta in Psalmos / Fragments on Psalms
GNO / Gregorii Nysseni Opera. Leiden: Brill
HE / Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica / Church History
Her. / Philo of Alexandria, Quis heres rerum divinarum sit / Who is the Heir of the Divine Goods?
Hom. in Cant. / Gregory of Nyssa, Homiliae in Canticum Canticorum / Homilies on the Song of Songs
Hom. in Ex. / Origen, Homiliae in Exodum / Homilies on Exodus
Hom. in Ier. / Origen, Homiliae in Ieremiam / Homilies on Jeremiah
Hom. in Ies. Nav. / Origen, Homiliae in librum Iesu Nave / Homilies on Joshua
Hom. in Lev. / Origen, Homiliae in Leviticum / Homilies on Leviticus
Hom. in Luc. / Origen, Homiliae in Lucam / Homilies on Luke
Hom. in Ps. 36–8 / Origen, Homiliae in Psalmos XXXVI–XXXVIII / Homilies on Psalms 36–38.
Hom. in Reg. / Origen, Homiliae in Reges / Homilies on Kings
In d. nat. Salv. / Gregory of Nyssa, In diem natalem Salvatoris / On the Day of the Birth of the Savior
In ep. can. br. enarr. / Didymus of Alexandria, In Epistulas Canonicas brevis enarratio / Short Explanation of the Canonical Epistles
In Inscr. Ps. / Gregory of Nyssa, In Inscriptiones Psalmorum / On the Titles of the Psalms
In Luc. / Eusebius of Caesarea, In Lucam / Exegesis of Luke
In Or. Dom. / Gregory of Nyssa or Maximus the Confessor, In Orationem Dominicam / Comments on the Lord’s Prayer
In sex. Ps. / Gregory of Nyssa, In Sextum Psalmum / On the Sixth Psalm
In Theoph. / Gregory Nazianzen, In Theophaniam / On the Theophany (Manifestation of the Divinity)
KG / Evagrius Ponticus, Kephalaia Gnostica / Chapters on Knowledge
Lib. Ascet. / Maximus the Confessor, Liber Asceticus / Book on Asceticism
LS / Liddell-Scott: A Greek-English Lexicon, compiled by Henry-George Liddell and George Scott, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones, with a revised supplement. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
Opusc. / Maximus the Confessor, Opuscula / Minor Works
Or. / Basil of Caesarea, Gregory Nazianzen, Orationes / Orations
Or. cat. / Gregory of Nyssa, Oratio catechetica magna / Great Catechetical Oration
Pan. / Gregory the Wonderworker, Panegyricus / Thanksgiving Oration
Periph. / John the Scot Eriugena, Periphyseon / On Natures
PG / Patrologia Graeca / Greek Patrology
Princ. / Origen, De Principiis / On First Principles
Prom. / Dionysius of Alexandria, De promissionibus / On God’s Promises
Protr. / Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus / Exhortation
Q. ad Thal. / Maximus the Confessor, Quaestiones ad Thalassium / Problems, to Thalassius
Q. et dub. / Maximus the Confessor, Quaestiones et dubia / Problems and Dubious Issues
Sel. in Ps. / Origen, Selecta in Psalmos / Selected Passages that Comment on the Psalms
Sent. / Evagrius Ponticus, Sententiae / Sayings
Strom. / Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis / Books of Miscellany
Symp. / Methodius of Olympus, Symposium
TLG / Thesaurus Linguae Graecae
TM / Ps. Dionysius, Theologia Mystica / Mystical Theology
Vir. Ill. / Jerome, De viris illustribus / On Illustrious Men
By Way of Introduction
I do not think that the reign of death is eternal as that of Life and Justice is, especially as I hear from the Apostle that the last enemy, death, must be destroyed [1 Cor 15:24]. For should one suppose that death is eternal as Life is, death will no longer be the contradictory of Life, but equal to it. For “eternal” is not the contradictory of “eternal,” but the same thing. Now, it is certain that death is the contradictory of Life; therefore, it is certain that, if Life is eternal, death cannot possibly be eternal. . . . Once the death of the soul, which is “the last enemy,” has been destroyed, the kingdom of death, together with death itself, will finally be wiped away.
(Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on Romans 5:7)
Universal Salvation and Greek Restoration (Apokatastasis)
Origen of Alexandria († c.255), the greatest Christian philosopher, theologian, and exegete of the patristic era, is regarded as the founder of the doctrine of universal salvation. He embedded it in his theory of apokatastasis (ἀποκατάστασις) or restoration of all rational creatures to the Good (i.e., God their Creator). However, as I will show, he had important antecedents, such as Bardaisan of Edessa and Clement of Alexandria, as well as some “apocryphal” writings, and especially the Bible, of which Origen was the utmost Christian exegete. He himself declares that there was a tradition behind him when he refers apokatastasis to the universal restoration: “The end [telos] is the so-called apokatastasis, because then no enemy will remain, if it is the case that Christ ‘must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet; but the last enemy will be destroyed: death.’”1 The words “the so-called apokatastasis” indicate that Origen is referring to an already existent tradition. And this was not a tradition that only possessed the concept of universal salvation, but not the word apokatastasis (such as the Apocalypse of Peter),2 but rather texts that contained both the concept and the very term apokatastasis, such as those of Clement,3 which Origen knew, but also a biblical passage: Acts 3:21.4
The Greek term apokatastasis basically indicates a “restoration, reconstitution, return” to an original condition. It is attested in classical and Hellenistic Greek literature long before Christianity, and also has technical meanings. For instance, in a medical sense, it designates the recovery of health; in a political sense, the return of a hostage to his homeland, or a political restoration; in a military sense, an inversion of maneuver; in a physical sense, the reestablishment of atoms after a collision. In astronomy, the apokatastasis of a heavenly body was its return to its original position, or a zodiacal revolution, or the return of the sun and the moon to visibility after an eclipse.
Apokatastasis was also a philosophical term, especially in Stoic cosmology. There, it indicated the periodical return of the universe to its original condition, in a cosmic cycle.5 Stoic cosmology was articulated in aeons (αἰῶνες) or “great years” that succeed one another; each of these aeons is identical, or almost identical, to all others, with the same events, the same people, and their same behaviors. The sequence of aeons continues forever. The end of an aeon is determined by a conflagration in which everything is resolved into the fire–aether–Logos (reason)–pneuma (breath, wind) that coincides with the supreme divinity (Zeus, Jupiter). The latter each time initiates a new expansion into a cosmos.
Origen knew the Stoic doctrine of aeons and apokatastasis very well. But the Stoic aeons are different from those of Origen. Indeed, Origen explicitly criticized the Stoic conception6 for two main reasons:
1) it destroyed human free will by maintaining that everything that happens is repeated again and again and again by necessity;
2) by positing an infinity of the sequence of aeons, it did not imply an end or telos to which all of history points (and which for Origen is universal salvation), but a senseless eternal repetition.
Origen himself explains the basic meaning of apokatastasis: someone’s return or restoration to a condition that is proper and original to him or her (ta oikeia). He illustrates this general meaning by means of some specific examples: the medical-therapeutic meaning of the resetting of a limb into its place after a displacement, the political meaning of the reintegration of an exile, or the military meaning of the readmission of a soldier into a unit from which he had been chased away.7 All of these meanings can metaphorically be applied to the final restoration of all human beings or all rational creatures to God.
Apokatastasis in Hellenistic Judaism and the Greek Bible
Hellenistic Judaism and Philo
The term apokatastasis is attested in Hellenistic Judaism, especially in Alexandria, in works that were well known to Clement of Alexandria and Origen. The correlate verb (ἀποκαθίστημι, ἀποκαθιστάνω, “to restore”) is
found in the Septuagint, the Hellenistic Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and both the verb and the noun (apokatastasis) are attested in the New Testament. The Letter of Aristeas 123:4 attests to the political meaning of apokatastasis. Philo of Alexandria, the main representative of Hellenistic Judaism, at the end of the first century B.C. and the beginning of the first A.D., uses apokatastasis to indicate the periodical restitution of land to its owners.8 A similar sense is attested, in the late first century A.D., by Flavius Josephus, in reference to the restoration of the Hebrews to their land.9 Philo refers apokatastasis to the liberation of the Hebrews from Egypt as an allegory of the restoration of the soul.10 Genesis 15:16, “at the fourth generation they will return here,” was said “not only to indicate the time in which they will inhabit the Holy Land, but also to present the perfect restoration [apokatastasis] of the soul.” This is the return of the soul to its original condition, without sin. The same meaning of apokatastasis is found in Clement of Alexandria, who was well acquainted with Philo’s thought, and in some “gnostic” texts.11 But, unlike Clement and Origen, neither Philo nor most of the “gnostics” had a notion of apokatastasis that entailed a belief in universal salvation or bodily resurrection.
The Septuagint (LXX)
In the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible that stems from a Jewish Hellenistic context, the noun apokatastasis (“restoration”) is lacking. However, the correspondent verb (“to restore”) is present, and its subject is always God.12 It is God who “restores.” In Exodus 14:26–27, God restores the water, having it flow again so as to submerge the Egyptians. In Leviticus 13:16, the meaning is therapeutic, as it will be in the Gospels: in a theological passive, God restores the skin of a leper to health. In Job 5:18 God is said to have a person suffer, but then to restore her again. Origen will take this statement as a reference to the eventual universal restoration and the end of purifying sufferings for sinners.13
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