by The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through American History 1900 to the Present (pdf)
urban areas. For them, the local pub or saloon was a neighborhood meeting
place. They would hold weddings and dances there.
Despite the law, people continued to drink. They would go to speak-
easies, which were unofficial drinking establishments. Some people made
their own liquor, and others began drinking alcoholic-like substances that
often had physical effects such as blindness and slow paralysis.
The alcohol in drinking establishments was provided by bootleggers.
These were criminals who supplied alcohol, and they were often involved
in organized crime. As Prohibition wore on, organized crime grew in
power and violence. In addition to bootlegging, they operated brothels and
gambling rings and sold drugs. Chicago was the base of operations for Al
Capone, one of the most notorious gangsters. Violent deaths associated
with organized crime dramatically increased in the city during Prohibition.
SOCIAL OCCASIONS
The 1920s saw many changes for debutante balls, also known as coming-
out parties. For the first time, debutantes began using the services of press
agents to manage and encourage their increasing celebrity status. Similar
to Hollywood celebrities, New York ‘ celebutantes’’ of the twenties were
caricatured in the press by illustrator John Held Jr. Often considered jun-
ior members of cafe society, debutante gossip was followed closely in the
press (Marling 2004).
The cost of coming-out parties continued to increase as well, although
in the early twenties they were usually group affairs with several girls com-
ing out at one party. Attire for the debutante ball remained formal, with a
special dress designed specifically for the party. However, the traditional
white had been abandoned, and bright colors were the most fashionable;
the more extravagant the better (Marling 2004).
Given the prosperity of the decade, it should come as no surprise that
celebrations and parties were frequent and lively. Birthdays became a more
celebratory event in general, and it was during this decade that cards were
created and produced specifically for birthdays. Other forms of formal
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DAILY LIFE
The Flapper. Fashion in the twenties
were frequently described as ‘ Held’s
was epitomized by the iconic image of
Hellions.’’
the flapper. A flapper was a new,
The term ‘‘flapper’’ has strange roots.
modern woman whose interests included
According to researchers, these young in-
being independent, liberal, healthy, and
dependent women often wore their rain
outgoing. She was slender, with bobbed
boots, known as galoshes, unfastened, caus-
hair, and was the antithesis of the ideal
ing them to flap as they walked, but there
of womanhood from the previous gener-
was much more to the flapper appearance
ation. The look was often referred to as
than this. Most strikingly, the new silhou-
La Garconne, a term coined in 1922,
ette of the flapper demanded flat lines and
when Victor Margueritte wrote the
no curves, with an almost prepubescent or
novel La Garconne, which told the story
childlike appearance. Described as sleek or
of a young woman who leaves home to
svelte, the look was both youthful and an-
explore an independent life.
drogynous. Women of this era cut their
The flapper appears prominently in
hair to emulate Colleen Moore’s Dutch
other forms of mass media, notably mov-
bob, dieted to keep their hips narrow, and
ies and cartoons. The 1923 production
flattened their chests. Pointed shoes and
Flaming Youth starred actress Colleen
rolled hose completed the picture.
Moore, who offered the new flapper
Conflicting reports describe the flap-
image to the masses. A continual stream
pers’ demise. The New Republic suggested
of movies followed this example, most
that, as early as 1925, the appeal of the
notably It, starring Clara Bow. John Held
flapper was already passe. By 1926, the
Jr., a well-known cartoonist for Life and
look had reached its international peak,
The New Yorker in the twenties, depicted
and The New York Times reported the
the flapper and her love interests, who
death of the flapper era in 1928.
celebrations included luncheons, teas, and tea dances. Attire for these
events was as fanciful and decadent as evening attire. Other opportunities
to socialize and show off included horse races, dog races, and scavenger
hunts, along with the regular cacophony of cotillions, and society parties
provided ample opportunities to display the latest fashions (Keenan
1978). The informal cocktail party also came into vogue, in some instan-
ces replacing the traditional luncheon, tea dance, and formal dinner party.
Other society parties were frequent during the early years of the
1920s. French couturier Paul Poiret was known for his extravagant Pari-
sian fetes, which were theme based. His most famous was ‘ The Thousand
and Second Night,’’ a fantasy based on the tales of The Arabian Nights.
The 1920s
103
HEALTH AND LEISURE
A postwar interest developed in nutrition,
caloric consumption, and physical exertion
that remained present throughout the twen-
ties. On a national scale, over one hundred
county health departments had been added
by 1920, and nearly 600 were serving the
U.S. population (Center for Disease Con-
trol). Vitamins and minerals were recognized
as important to overall health, and several
‘ new’ vitamins were discovered during the
decade. The potential of vitamin E to pre-
vent sterility and its ability to prevent rickets
were two of the most important. Vitamins
A, B, C, and K were also discovered (Kyvig
2002).
Also during this time, servants were hired
only by the wealthy. The middle class began to
have a greater self-reliance and cooked for
themselves, often using processed foods. The
market quickly evolved to meet their needs in
Fashionable young
a variety of ways. Condensed soups, especially Campbell’s, flourished, and
woman, posed next to
sales of other canned fruits and vegetables improved. In 1925, a new quick-
a roadster, 1926.
freeze method of preserving food changed how both restaurants and homes
[Library of Congress]
served meals. Convenient and easy-to-make foods such as salad, fruit, Jello,
and mayonnaise became popular as well (Kyvig 2002).
Many products were marketed for their ‘ healthy’ properties, including
cigarettes, salt, grape juice, and even chocolate. The trend was started by
breakfast cereal companies in the previous century, and marketers in the
1920s capitalized on the newly found importance of vitamins in their
advertising.
; General Mills invented Betty Crocker as part of a marketing strategy
for its products. This fictional housewife provided advice and recipes via
radio, newspapers, and cookbooks, subtly encouraging the purchase of
General Mills products.
In part because of the increased use of photography in fashion maga-
zines of the 1920s, dieting and exercise became especially important for
middle-class women. Most of these low-calorie diets involved grapefruit,
coffee, buttermilk, or melba toast and were featured in chart form in fash-
ion magazines such as Vogue. Additionally, advertisements for everyday
104
DAILY LIFE
foods such as Wonder Bread and grape juice were labeled to cater to diet-
ers, highlighting their nonfattening and energizing properties.
During the previous decade, large numbers of volunteers became used to
exertion during the war effort. This led to an increased interest in nonseden-
tary activities. Women began exercising in gymnasiums as a group, which
was also known as calisthenics. Although not quite exercise, fads or ‘ crazes’
became popular for youngsters and teenagers. These included run-of-the-
mill activities such as dancing and cycling but also included more creative
activities such as flagpole sitting, miniature golf, multi-day dance marathons,
and even crossword puzzles, mah-jongg tournaments, and scavenger hunts.
Athletics and sports were highly popular at this time, attributable in
part to the 1924 Summer Olympics held in Paris. Although many people
enjoyed sports as spectators, an ever-increasing number of the upper and
middle class began to participate in sports as a leisure activity. Especially
popular were tennis, swimming, cycling, golf, and even hunting for both
men and women. Winter sports such as skiing and ice skating became
more popular as well. Swimming was thrust into the headlines when
Gertrude Ederle broke both male and female records by swimming the
English Channel. Other popular spectator sports included dog and horse
racing, American baseball, and boxing.
Dancing was a favorite pastime. Americans adopted energetic dances
to match their taste for ‘ wild’ ragtime and jazz music. Dances such as the
Charleston, the Shimmy, and the Black Bottom were derived from Afri-
can-American dances. Dance halls and commercial ballrooms proliferated
during the 1920s to meet the popularity of the dance craze.
In the early twenties, affluence was more prevalent, and people were
working less and vacationing more. More people were able to enjoy an-
nual vacations, including the wealthy, salaried employees, and occasionally
even farmers (Kyvig 2002). The car played an important role in the
American vacation, as production of automobiles more than doubled
between 1920 and 1930 (Olian 2003).
Family car trips were the most popular form of leisure travel, although
underdeveloped routes and accommodations often necessitated that travel-
ers pack camping supplies as a precaution. Destinations often included
parks and other natural attractions such as Cape Cod, Niagra Falls, Yel-
lowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon (Kyving 2002). Many travel-
ers preferred beaches, such as those in Florida and California, as a part of
the new sunbathing obsession of the 1920s.
Driving became a leisure activity as well as a symbol of freedom and in-
dependence to women, who had learned to drive out of necessity during
the war. Men who worked in the city typically enjoyed driving as a leisure
activity on Sunday afternoons. Car ownership allowed people to commute
The 1930s
105
to work in areas that did not have public transportation. Cars also allowed
couples to have more privacy on dates. With the rise in popularity of auto-
mobiles, the federal government passed the Federal Highway Act in 1921,
which gave federal funds to states to build an interstate highway system.
Although Prohibition, enacted in the United States in January 1920,
was intended to stop the consumption of alcohol, the law only ended up
criminalizing the production, transportation, and sale of it. Bootleggers
and speakeasies in larger cities, including San Francisco, New York, and
New Orleans, helped ensure that Americans could drink throughout the
roaring twenties. Imported liquor was generally both of higher quality
and higher expense, and domestic alcohol was already a fairly expensive
item during Prohibition. Drinking was popular among immigrant popula-
tions as well as the wealthy.
Another popular drug of choice was tobacco. Women were specifically
targeted by cigarette advertisers in the 1920s, and it was touted as a sym-
bol of equality. Ads also often featured ‘ doctors’’ explaining the health
benefits of smoking, which often included a reference to weight manage-
ment (Kyvig 2002). Consequently, cigarette consumption doubled to 43
billion in the 1920s (Gordon and Gordon 1987; Kyvig 2002).
T H E
1930S
The rampant unemployment that plagued the 1930s significantly dis-
rupted men’s lives. When they lost work, their self-esteem suffered. They
tried to maintain their breadwinner status, but they often found them-
selves out of work with a lot of time on their hands.
Americans spent significant time and focus on keeping their spending
within their budgets and performing activities to conserve their resources.
Women worked to stretch their food budget. Leftovers were stretched
into even more meals. In place of the backyard, most families created gar-
dens to supplement their menus. Some even raised chickens for the eggs.
Women enhanced their sewing skills because, during this decade, few
clothes were store bought. Torn clothing was mended and worn clothing
was patched or made into a new piece of clothing. Nearly everything was
saved and reused: rubber bands, tin foil, paper bags, jars, and shoe boxes.
SOCIAL OCCASIONS
Debutantes continued to use press agents to manage their public images,
and the public continued to be interested in the gossip surrounding their
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DAILY LIFE
unending material consumption, despite the woes of the Depression. In
fact, because of the vast discrepancies between rich and poor, debutante
balls were covered even more in the press as a kind of escapism, similar to
the kind achieved by Hollywood films at this time. Thus, the most attrac-
tive of the celebrities, along with ‘ debutante slouches,’’ were of the most
interest.
Some of the most famous were the 1930 debut of Woolworth heiress
Barbara Hutton and the 1936 debut of Barbara Field, daughter of Mar-
shall Field. Field’s party cost a whopping $50,000, and still another 1936
debut cost nearly $100,000 in Philadelphia. These debutantes became
both hated and adored for their ostentatious displays of wealth. The deco-
rations at these vastly expensive parties were often bizarre and, despite
Prohibition, usually included alcoholic beverages (Marling 2004).
Some of the most famous group debutante balls began in the 1930s and
recurred each year. In New Yor
k, the ‘‘Debutante Cotillion and Christmas
Ball,’’ ‘‘Gotham Ball,’’ and ‘‘Debutante Assembly and New Year’s Ball’ have
become the most important and were all established in the thirties. They
each debuted hundreds of girls annually and used classical cotillion figures
and white gloves.
Christmas really came into its own as a commercial holiday in the
early thirties. In 1931, Coca-Cola hired artist Haddon Sundblom to draw
a cartoon of Santa Claus to advertise its soda in magazines and newspa-
pers across the country. Consequently, celebrations surrounding the holi-
day became more frequent and focused on the idea of St. Nick bringing
toys and trinkets for children.
Celebrations by the lower and middle class were kept to a minimum
by the economics of the Depression, although the wealthy continued to
drink and smoke at informal cocktail parties, horse races, dog races, teas,
and dances.
HEALTH AND LEISURE
In the 1930s, the depression hindered Americans’ ability to feed them-
selves adequately. Approximately 40 percent were underfed, but, by 1935,
meals were healthier and more nutritional. Frozen foods had been devel-
oped in the twenties, and, by the mid-thirties, Americans gobbled up 39
million pounds each year. When not eating frozen meals, people in the
eastern United States had the opportunity to visit one of the many new
chain restaurants. Howard Johnson’s, White Castle, and several others
opened during the 1930s.
In large part attributable to the Depression, dieting for weight loss
was less of a concern in the early thirties than it had been in the previous
The 1940s
107
decade of affluence and abundance. So too, exercise and fitness were less
of a concern for the struggling masses. As the thirties progressed, how-
ever, the middle class and upper class returned to diet fads from the previ-
ous decade and relied on various sports to keep them fit.
Both men and women participated in sports activities in the 1930s. Swim-
ming and sunbathing remained fashionable, and other popular sports included
running, fencing, mountain climbing, horseback riding, sailing, hunting, and
cycling. Both water skiing and tennis were gaining in popularity.
Winter sports, such as snow skiing and ice skating, gained in popular-