478
Index
Camp Holmes, Treaty of, 294, 399n22,
for Comanche captives, 335; numbers
430n4
of, 223, 250–51; raid-and-trade policy
Canada, 72, 73, 100, 171
of Comanches and, 192; refusal to be
Canadian River, 35, 36, 49, 156; American
ransomed, 191, 258–59; repatriated from
merchants along, 167; comancheros
Comanches by United States, 301, 304;
along, 205; headwaters, 295; winter
traded at Bent’s Fort, 167; U.S. Indian
camps, 284–85
agents and, 328; used as guides, 196,
Canaguaipe, Chief, 122, 133, 136, 139
220, 252; women and children, 252
Canales, Antonio, 233, 236
Captives and Cousins (Brooks), 11
capitalism, 145, 167, 188; Comanche raid-
carbohydrates, 38, 302, 351, 352; captives
ing wealth and, 223; free labor under,
in exchange for, 39; as motive for war,
319, 331, 361; hunting-herding econ-
31–32
omy and, 290; U.S. absorption of New
Carlos III, King, 69, 97–98, 100; contain-
Mexico and, 213; westward expansion of
ment of U.S. expansion and, 112–13;
United States and, 303, 361
O’Conor appointed by, 390n2; secular
Capron, Horace, 299, 308
reforms of, 108
captives, 5, 13; adoption into Comanche
Casa de Palo, La, 37
families, 255, 257; black slaves, 154;
Catholic Church/Catholicism, 31, 34,
Comanches in Spanish captivity, 94–95;
112; Apaches and, 34; Chimayó move-
indoctrination phase, 253–54; kinship
ment and, 211; Indians in “Mexican
networks and, 16; in “Los Comanches,”
family” and, 180; strong position in
86; masculine honor of Comanches
New Mexico, 213. See also Christianity;
and, 269; men, 252, 253, 254; peace
missions
negotiations and, 46–47, 122; public
Catlett, H. G., 274
rape of, 45; Texas Republic policy on,
Catlin, George, 177, 178, 246; Comanche
216; trade network and, 12. See also
chiefs painted by, 259, 260; on welcom-
ransoming; slavery
ing ceremony for U.S. dragoons, 286–89
captives, Anglo-American, 154, 155, 216,
cattle: captured by Comanches, 320; in
235; adopted into Comanche life, 330;
Indian Territory, 152; as industry in
exchanged for Comanche captives, 335;
Texas, 187, 314, 329–30, 331, 333–34,
ransom of, 328; women, 253, 255, 319
342; longhorns, 315, 317–18; slaughtered
captives, Hispanic/Spanish, 113, 138, 144;
by Comanches, 74, 81, 85, 209
reconciled to captivity, 258; women, 47,
Chacón, Gov. Fernando, 139, 205–6,
251, 256
393n38
captives, Indian, 26, 84, 127; Apache, 27,
Cháves, Gov. José Antonio, 210
91, 128, 129, 220, 377n52; comanchero
Chaves, Xavier, 113, 114, 116, 118
trade and, 318; social privileges won by,
Chemin de Guerre des Comanches, 220
257. See also genízaros (former Indian
Cherokees, 147, 152, 155, 176, 316; bison
captives)
hunting and, 294; black slaves of, 153,
captives, Mexican, 154, 191, 216, 236, 255,
154; disunity among, 348; incorporation
308; on Comanche reservation in Texas,
into Comanchería, 174–75; as settled
309; in Comanche war parties, 252–53;
farmers, 329; Texas Republic and, 214,
comanchero trade and, 318; exchanged
215, 217
Index
479
Cheyennes, 110, 162, 164, 172, 176, 211, 331;
children, captive, 39, 52, 75–76, 223;
Comanche trade relations with, 71, 73,
adopted into Comanche families, 255;
169, 230, 300; conflict with Comanches
Apache, 40; Mexican, 225, 236
and allies, 164–65, 168, 170, 179; dis-
children, Comanche, 52, 131, 216, 240, 267,
unity among, 348; economic depen-
381n97; under assault from U.S. forces,
dence on Comanchería, 170; horses
310, 311, 334, 341; decline of bison and,
introduced to, 170–71; incorporation
309; patriarchy and, 250
into Comanchería, 326; massacred at
Chimayó Rebellion, 211, 212
Sand Creek, 321; nomadism of, 329;
Chiquito, José, 118–19
peace with Comanches, 165, 295; on
Chivington, Col. John, 321
reservations, 33, 322; Sun Dance and,
Choctaws, 112, 147, 152, 155, 176, 316; bison
338; war with United States, 321, 325,
hunting and, 294; black slaves of, 153,
333, 342
154; incorporation into Comanchería,
Chicanas/Chicanos, 360
174–75
Chickasaws, 112, 176, 316, 330; bison hunt-
Chouteau, Auguste, 156
ing and, 294; black slaves of, 153, 154;
Christianity, 26, 33, 35, 40, 58. See also
incorporation into Comanchería, 174–
Catholic Church/Catholicism; Quakers,
75; Indian Removal Act and, 152
as U.S. Indian agents
chiefs, Comanche, 113–14, 117, 119, 122,
ciboleros, 127, 206–7, 295; bison ecology
130, 348; authority of, 270–74; chief-
and, 297; Comanche language and, 171;
tainship as institution, 105; civil chiefs,
in conflict with Comanches and Kiowas,
273, 290; Civil War and, 313; decline of
301–2
Comanchería and, 299; grand councils
Civil War, 292, 317, 361; abolition of
and, 276–77; horse wealth and, 259–63;
slavery and, 332; decline of Comanches
Kiowa alliance and, 161; Mexican offi-
and, 313; effect on Indian nations, 314–
cials and, 191–92, 196, 210; multitribal
15; total war pioneered in, 333; violence
communities of interest and, 326; reser-
on Great Plains after, 321, 322
vation, 328; Spanish strategy of “peace
climate, 22, 361; bison crisis and, 296–97;
by deceit” and, 133, 135, 136–37; treaties
horse herds and, 240, 243–44; winters
with United States and, 314; U.S. Army
on southern plains, 37
engagements with Comanches and,
Coahuila, 5, 95, 101, 117, 212; Apache
334–35; war chiefs, 273, 290. See also
raids, 64, 89, 97, 129, 354; Comanche
specific chiefs by name
raids, 196, 208, 220, 226; Indian tribes
chiefs, Kiowa, 161, 332, 335
removed from eastern United States in,
Chihuahua, Chief, 184, 189
306; Lipan Apaches of, 61, 186; silver-
Chihuahua (Mexican state), 198, 203,
mining districts, 109, 354; as slaving
206, 210; Apache raids, 232; bounties for
frontier, 351; Texas united with, 193, 194,
Indian scalps in, 228; under Comanche
200, 358; tribute paid to Comanches,
dominance, 232; Comanche raids, 221,
229–
30
225–26; Mexican-American War and,
Cocos, 79, 98
234, 235; tribute paid to Comanches,
Codallos y Rabál, Gov. Joachín, 41, 42, 44,
229–30
377n50
Chihuahua Trail, 74, 109, 127
Coffee, Holland, 155–56, 223
480
Index
El Cojo, Chief, 186
202–6, 223, 350; nomadic and infor-
colonialism, European/Euro-American,
mal character of, 3–4; political system,
17, 345, 352, 365n3; Comanche barrier
104; raiding zones, 79; as regional core
to expansion of, 1–2, 357; disease epi-
of world-system, 5; slave economy in,
demics and, 353; horses spread in North
75, 76, 250–53, 347, 350, 359, 424n37;
America by, 356; revisionist history of,
smallpox epidemics in, 111, 178–79, 302,
6–7; rivalries among, 3, 19, 33, 44; settle-
313; Texas Republic expansion and, 215;
ment colonies, 4; Southwest outside
trade fairs, 106, 168; U.S. military in-
control of, 5. See also imperialism
vasion of 1870 s, 7, 333–41, 340; westward
Colorado, U.S. territory of, 303, 304, 321,
expansion of United States and, 142
325
comanchero trade, 168, 171, 205, 211–12;
Comanche Feats of Horsemanship (Catlin),
Comanche cultural influence and, 207;
289
decline of, 301; destroyed by U.S. Army,
Comanche language, 83, 113, 118, 175, 349;
335; geographical range, 176; Mexican
influence of, 2, 171; Spanish mixed with,
officials’ criticism of, 210; post–Civil
206; as trade lingua franca, 171
War, 325, 326, 330; revival of, 315; Texas
Comanche Village, women dressing robes
longhorn cattle and, 315, 317
and drying meat (Catlin), 288
Comanches: in American imagination,
Comanche Warriors, with White Flag, Re-
343–45; American merchants/traders
ceiving the Dragoons (Catlin), 287
and, 144–46, 147–51, 167; Anglo-Texans
Comanchería (Comanche territory/
and, 201; annual cycle of, 284–90, 289–
empire), 11, 71, 142; American traders
90, 326, 334, 348; bison ecology in crisis
in, 145–51, 152, 156–60, 188; Apaches
and, 293–99; as bounty scalp hunters,
pushed aside by, 61, 64, 66, 75, 90, 101;
228; Bourbon Reforms of New Spain
bison herds and ecological crisis, 293–
and, 109–10; branches/divisions of, 25,
99; cultural influence of, 170–72; down-
62, 105–6, 348, 390n74, 426n68; cibo-
fall, 7, 331–40, 340, 360–61; eastern
leros in conflict with, 301–2; collapse
trade gateway, 155–56; Euro-colonial
of trading network, 299–303; commer-
regimes and, 181–82; European empires
cial networks, 2, 167–68; confederacy
contrasted with, 3–5, 349–53; every-
of, 106; culture, 5, 31–32, 135, 158–59,
day life in, 239; food trade with New
206–7; decline of, 292–93; dominance
Mexico, 40; geographical extent, 62, 63,
over other Native nations, 106; eastern
64, 69, 316; Greater Comanchería, 182,
Indian nations and, 152–55; economy,
219, 358; horse wealth of, 75, 167, 170,
8, 12, 57; entry into recorded history, 20;
190, 240–41, 346–47; incorporation of
equestrianism and, 37–38, 40, 66, 67,
foreign ethnicities into, 172–75, 177–80,
352, 356; Euro-American views of, 8–9;
326, 327; invaded by American over-
European rivalries exploited by, 19, 65–
land migration, 303–4; maps, 48, 56,
66, 368n8; expansion, 55, 56, 57, 88–90,
63, 79, 169, 176; as multiethnic region,
141–42, 219, 348, 352; factors in success
175, 326, 349, 360; neutral buffer zones
of, 345–49; final defeat by U.S. forces
around, 49, 218, 286, 294; New Mexican
in Texas Panhandle, 7, 333–41, 340; as
traders and hunters in, 128, 130; New
hunter-gatherers ( See gathering; hunt-
Mexico under dominance of, 101, 182,
ing); as key to imperial strategy of Bour-
Index
481
bon Spain, 143; legal culture, 277–78;
and, 211; Hispanic settlers and, 77; raids
Mexican-American War and, 233–38;
for, 302; as reservation annuity, 309; as
migration to southern plains, 18–20, 28,
source of power, 168. See also maize
346, 373n22; motives behind actions of,
Cortés, Hernán, 2
13, 15; nomadism of, 283–84, 329, 345;
Cortés, José María, 134, 145
origins of, 20–24, 162; Pawnees at war
Cota de Malla (Coat of Mail), Chief, 118,
with, 42; political system, 2, 102–5, 137,
392n24
269–70, 282–83, 348–49; on reserva-
cotton, 109, 191; in Indian Territory, 153; in
tions, 322, 323–26, 328, 341, 343; revival
Texas, 194, 198, 200, 214, 305; westward
of power after Civil War, 313–15, 316,
march of plantation system, 156
317–20; self-reinvention of, 1, 2, 66; slave
Creeks, 112, 152, 153, 154, 176, 294, 316, 329
raids of, 27, 28, 154, 223, 332; social face,
Creoles, 211, 250, 251, 258
137, 266, 425n52; social organization, 2,
Croix, Teodoro de, 97, 98–99, 109, 110
38, 259–66, 275–78, 426n68; Spaniards’
Cross Timbers, 49, 55, 63, 217
relations with, 40–42, 46–48, 49, 50–51,
Crow Indians, 162, 164, 169, 322
62, 70, 73, 138–40; starvation in wake of
Cruz, Father Juan de la, 33
bison slaughter, 337, 341; transatlantic
Cruzat y Góngora, Gov. Gervasio, 36
economy and, 17; tribute extraction by,
Cuerno Verde (Green Horn), Chief,
2, 9, 12; U.S. takeover of Southwest and,
103–4, 110, 111, 117, 121; death in battle,
233, 292, 303–4. See also Jupes (People
389–90n72; son of, 265
of Timber); Kotsotekas (Buffalo Eaters);
Cuetaninaveni, Chief, 122
Kwahadas (Antelope Eaters); Penatekas
Custer, Gen. George, 325, 342
(Honey Eaters); Tenewas (Those Who
Stay Downstream); Yamparikas (Yap
Davenport, Samuel, 189
Eaters)
Davis, Gov. Edmund, 335–36, 337
“Comanches, Los” (folk play), 86–88, 344,
Davis, Jefferson, 308
360, 389n72
Delassus, Charles Dehault, 202–3
Concha, Gov. Fernando de la, 126–28, 133,
Delawares, 93, 147, 153, 155, 176, 223, 304;
393n38; Apache bands and, 138–39; on
bison hunting and, 294; black slaves of,
apparent dependency of Comanches
154; incorporation into Comanchería,
on Spain, 143; on Comanche cultural
175; Indian Removal Act and, 152; as
influence, 207; on Comanche political
scouts for U.S. forces, 311; Texas Repub-
o
rganization, 283; Comanche wars with
lic and, 21, 215, 217
other Native nations and, 139–40, 160;
Deloria, Vine, Jr., 6
comanchero trade and, 204–5
diplomacy, 16, 41, 104, 348; Comanche-
Confederacy, in Civil War, 313, 333
Taovaya alliance and, 44; Comanche-
Cordero (Sargento-Cordero), Chief, 133,
Ute alliance and, 65; European, 15; ex-
136, 184, 185, 229
change of captives and, 251; geopolitical
Cordero y Bustamante, Gov. Manuel
reordering of Southwest, 124; between
Antonio, 188
Native nations, 172; paraibos and, 270,
corn, 127, 164, 206, 217, 305; border trade
274, 282; with reformed Spanish empire,
and, 204; Comanche commercial
113; Spanish, 183–84; of Texas Republic,
networks and, 168; comanchero trade
214–15; unity of Comanches and, 281;
482
Index
diplomacy (continued)
markets of New Mexico, 25; pastoral
Wichita trade barrier with United States
herding, 10, 241–44; reservations and,
and, 147–50
329; slavery and, 14, 250–53, 420; world
disease epidemics, 23, 30, 293; among
economy, 5. See also merchants/traders;
bison, 296; cholera, 179, 198, 300, 302,
trade
308; Comanches’ relative protection
Ecueracapa, Chief, 107, 125, 392n24; as
from, 346, 347–48; effects on Native
Comanche delegate to New Mexico,
trade, 164; European metropolitan
118–21; Comanche tradition of leader-
colonialism and, 353; slavery and, 252,
ship and, 135, 136, 137; death, 133, 135,
255; spread by trade networks, 178–79;
160; military alliance with Spaniards
Wichita victims of, 96. See also smallpox
and, 139; Spanish plan of peaceful sub-
Dodge, Col. Henry, 286, 287, 399n22
jugation and, 132, 133; treaty with Gov-
Dodge, Col. Richard Irving, 298–99
ernor Anza, 201, 282
Dodge, Theodore Ayrault, 245
Elguézabal, Gov. Juan Bautista, 183
Dog Soldiers, 321, 325
elk, 21, 24, 87, 433n22
dogs, 25, 37
Elk Creek medicine camp, 337–38
Domínguez, Fray Francisco Atanasio, 73,
El Paso, 56, 63, 64, 79, 90, 102, 139, 176,
77, 84, 86, 88, 89
220, 222, 230, 232, 234, 310, 316
droughts, 74, 82, 127, 313, 340; annihila-
Encanaguané (Red Fox), Chief, 133, 134,
tion of bison and, 339; bison ecology
136, 160
and, 296–97; end of Little Ice Age and,
Escalante, Silvestre Vélez de, 88, 89
431n9; horses’ grazing habits and, 242;
The Comanche Empire Page 79