on, 96; incorporation into Coman-
76, 80, 83, 85; shifts in policy toward
chería, 173–74; Spanish relations with,
Comanches, 62; strategy of, 70, 100;
113. See also Wichitas
trade relations viewed by, 41; United
Taylor, Nathaniel, 322
States as rival to, 141, 143–44, 156–59,
Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 234, 235, 236
184, 189, 202, 411n38; Ute-Comanche
Tebenanaka (Sun’s Noise), Chief, 326,
alliance and, 27–28; as world’s largest
334
empire, 1. See also Bourbon officials;
technology, European, 14, 15, 16, 101, 350;
Indian policy, Spanish; New Spain
American traders as providers of, 148;
Spanish Girl (A Prisoner), The (Abert), 256
Apaches and, 57; arrival of Comanches
Spanish language, 83, 206, 258
in southern plains and, 19–20; Coman-
St. Louis, 111, 151, 183
che military mastery of, 64; metropoli-
Sun Dance ceremony, 172, 278, 337
tan expansion and, 353; Spanish Indian
policy and, 203; U.S. technological
Ta-wah-que-nah. See Tabequana
superiority, 333
Tabequana (Sun Eagle), Chief, 259
Teguayo, fabled kingdom of, 21
Tahuchimpia, Chief, 125, 133, 136, 393n42
Tehuacana Creek, Treaty of, 218
Tamarón y Romeral, Fray Pedro, 51, 73
Tejanos, 197, 198, 199, 200, 214
Tamaulipas, 220, 224, 226; Mexican-
Tenewas (Those Who Stay Downstream),
American War and, 236; northern vil-
151, 169, 176, 184, 196, 311, 316; chiefs,
lages as front line of Comanche attacks,
210, 259, 263; Little Arkansas Treaty
229; as slaving frontier, 351
and, 314; relations with other Coman-
Taos, 25, 120, 203; Apaches in, 33; Coman-
che bands, 276; on reservation, 326;
che raids, 27, 209; declining trade im-
treaty with Mexico and, 281; Yamparikas
portance of, 204; as hub of Comanche
reinvented as, 282
expansion, 38; maps, 56, 63, 79, 169, 176,
Texas, Mexican, 182, 414n59; Anglo-
316; “reverse” horse trade at, 385n33;
American settlers in, 193–94, 358;
Spanish settlers, 76; trade fairs, 44, 51,
Austin’s map, 195; Comanche raids,
Index
497
198; Comanche relations with, 190–93;
grants, 305–6; revived Comanche power
as satellite of Comanchería, 196, 199;
after Civil War, 313–14, 316; settler-
settlement patterns in, 198–99
Comanche conflict in, 306–7, 311–12;
Texas, Republic of, 156, 173, 196, 271;
trading posts closed on frontier, 299;
annexation by United States, 141;
vigilante gangs, 311–12
Comanche raiding routes and, 358; ex-
Texas Rangers, 216, 224, 306, 310
pansionism, 222; German immigrants,
theft. See raiding
305–6; Mexico’s hope to recover, 233,
Thompson, Waddy, 250–51
358, 418n99; militia, 174, 215; national
Throckmorton, Gov. John W., 320
mythology of, 201; negotiations with
Tichinalla, Chief, 122
Tenewas, 277; population, 179; relations
Tixier, Victor, 155, 253, 257
with Comanches, 47, 214–19, 230–31;
tobacco, 27, 108, 205, 229; at chiefs’ coun-
revolution and independence, 199–201,
cils, 277; comanchero trade and, 205,
213–14, 226, 228; slavery in, 179; as
318; diplomacy and, 47, 214; as gift, 34,
threat to Comanches, 182
46, 114, 129, 133, 159, 184; at trading
Texas, Spanish, 2, 5; American merchants
fairs, 84, 153, 204
and, 144–45, 146; Apache raids in, 89,
Tonkawas, 58, 59, 60–61, 101, 137, 339; as
96; Bourbon Reforms and, 108–9;
allies of Comanches, 65, 90; collapse of
colonial officials, 10; Comanche con-
ties with Comanches, 90–91; Coman-
quest of Texas plains, 57, 58; Comanche
che war on, 98; as scouts for U.S. forces,
raids, 5, 90, 98, 112, 143, 183, 186–88,
310, 311, 334, 338; territory of, 56, 63, 79;
190, 208; Comanches as allies against
U.S. Indian policy and, 147
Apaches, 129; cross-cultural cooperation
Toro Echicero (Sorcerer Bull), Chief, 210
in borderlands, 128–29; foundation as
Toroblanco (White Bull), Chief, 117, 118
Spanish colony, 19; governors, 185, 186;
Tosacondata, Chief, 122, 125, 126, 135
Mexico’s loss of, 9–10; missions, 61, 62;
Tosapoy, Chief, 122
as money-draining colony, 6, 353; “peace
Tosawa, Chief, 325, 328, 435n48
by deceit” strategy in, 137–38; peace
Toyamancare, Chief, 122
treaty with Comanches, 107; political
trade: with American merchants, 144–51,
relations with Indian nations, 114; popu-
155–56; with British, 71; Chihuahua
lation, 102; as satellite of Comanchería,
Trail, 109; collapse of Comanche trad-
98–99, 101, 237, 350; settler-colonists
ing network, 299–303, 312, 361; Coman-
driven out by Comanches, 4; Taovaya
che social relations and, 15, 158–59; cul-
power in, 93; tribute gifts to Coman-
tural dominance of Comanchería and,
ches, 184; urban-based society, 11; U.S.
171–80; equestrianism and, 25; fairs,
expansion and, 150; Wichita alliance
38, 41, 50, 74, 122–23, 137; geography
with, 94, 95
of Comanche trading empire, 169; gift
Texas, U.S. state of, 292, 303, 320, 326,
giving and, 159; governed by Comanche
361; Anglo-American settlers in, 305;
principles, 48; hinterland in northern
Anglo buffalo hunters in, 338–39, 340;
Mexico, 219–32, 222; horses and Coman-
cattle industry, 329–30, 331, 333–34,
che dominance, 347; interdivisional
342; Comanche raids, 309–10, 322, 333;
trade of Comanches, 106; niche opened
in Confederacy, 313; German immi-
by Apache retreat, 38; on northern
498
Index
trade (continued)
decline of Comanches and, 292–93,
plains, 71, 161–62; raiding alternated
303–4, 330–31; Indian policy, 147–49,
with, 81–83, 92, 108, 192; Santa Fe Trail
152, 156, 322–25; Manifest Destiny ex-
caravans, 296; south-north axis align-
pansion, 141, 142; New Mexico absorbed
ment on plains, 72; with Spanish Louisi-
by, 292; Office of Indian Affairs, 300,
ana, 71–72; Spanish “peace by deceit”
319, 328; pan-Indian alliance against,
strategy and, 130–34; theft and, 82; trad-
177; quest for transcontinental empire,
ing posts, 176, 230. See also comanchero
4; Revolutionary War, 98, 99, 111; as
trade; economy; merchants/traders
rival to Spanish empire, 143–44, 156–59,
travele
rs, 13, 64, 128, 187, 300, 324
184, 189, 202, 411n38; Southwest expan-
treaties, 42, 107, 220; Camp Holmes, 294,
sion facilitated by Native expansion,
399n22, 430n4; between France and
233, 357–59; Texas annexed by, 214, 218;
Spain, 35, 40; Guadalupe Hidalgo, 292,
treaty relations with Comanches, 218,
301, 306; Little Arkansas, 314, 319, 324;
314; as ultimate beneficiary of Coman-
Medicine Lodge, 322–23, 330, 331, 336,
che dominance, 3; wars with Plains
437–38n6; with Mexico, 281; with New
Indians, 342–43, 356, 361; West Florida
Mexico, 69–70, 104, 117–24; with other
border, 112. See also Louisiana Purchase
Native nations, 281; “Peace and Amity,”
Urrea, Gov. Mariano, 191
215; between Spaniards and Coman-
U.S. Army, 49, 165, 214, 223; Comanche
ches, 47–48; Tehuacana Creek, 218;
chiefs and, 274; expeditions against
Treaty of Paris, 68, 69, 100; with United
Comanches, 305, 309, 310–11; horses
States, 300, 304, 322–25; Velasco, 213
of, 246; Indian Office at odds with, 328;
tribute, 2, 9, 223, 229–30, 349, 352, 366n4;
Indian scouts and auxiliaries, 300, 334,
client states, 275; encomienda grants, 26;
338; invasion of Comanchería (1870s),
extorted from colonial outposts, 12; to
333–41, 340; in Mexican-American War,
Spanish empire, 42. See also gifts
233–37, 358, 419n106; total war policy
Trigger, Bruce, 14–15
against Plains Indians, 332–33; war with
Trimble, W. A., 149–50
Lakotas, 321–22; welcomed in heart of
Trudeau, Zenon, 160
Comanchería, 286–89, 287
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 7
Usner, Daniel, 8
Tutsayatuhovit (Black Prairie Dog), Chief,
Utes, 17, 101, 137, 161, 380n81; allied with
161, 259
Spanish empire, 109, 355; collapse of
Comanche alliance, 49–50, 65, 88;
Ugarte y Loyola, Jacobo, 125–27, 128, 136,
Comanches as allies, 20, 24–26, 40, 44,
144
379n68; Comanches at war with, 50, 55,
Ulibarrí, Juan de, 28
121, 139; diplomacy and, 124; home terri-
United States, 9, 18, 228, 345, 350; centen-
tory, 23–24, 219; migration of, 28; peace
nial celebration, 342; “Comanche bar-
agreement with New Mexico and, 120,
rier” to western expansion of, 343–45;
121, 130; plains culture and, 50; raids in
Comanche raids on Spanish/Mexican
New Mexico, 208; slave markets of New
territories and, 188–90, 193, 432n18;
Mexico and, 26, 27, 355–56; territory of,
comanchero trade and, 301; Comanches
56, 79, 88, 111
recognized as sovereign nation by, 47;
Uto-Aztecan languages, 21
Index
499
Valle, Gov. Francisco Marín del, 50–51
Indian Territory, 300–301; with Span-
Valverde y Cosío, Gov. Antonio, 28, 33, 34
iards, 42–46, 52, 61, 65, 78, 81, 109–10,
Van Dorn, Brev. Maj. Earl, 311
184–87; with Texas Republic, 215, 216;
Varo, Fray Andres, 45
with United States, 332–33, 333–41,
Velasco, Treaty of, 213
340; with Utes, 49, 50, 55, 121, 139; war
Vial, Pedro, 113–15, 116, 118, 130, 392n24;
among Native peoples, 22–23, 26; with
on nomadism and horse herding, 241; as
Wichitas (Taovayas), 98, 387n51
truce mediator in Comanche-Pawnee
Webb, James Josiah, 231
war, 160
Webb, Walter Prescott, 343–44
Vigil, Donaciano, 236
Weber, David, 10
villages, Native, 9, 71; Apache, 23, 27, 28,
West Florida, British, 72, 92, 93, 100, 112
32, 40, 89–90; Comanche winter vil-
Western Comanches in War Dress (Sán-
lages, 25, 283, 285; Taovaya (Wichita),
chez y Tapia), 268
95
Wharton, William H., 200–201
villages, Spanish and Mexican, 74, 225;
White, Richard, 8, 370n20
Apache raids on, 80; Comanche raids
Whitfield, John W., 297, 299, 304, 433n22
on, 77, 80, 306; Tejano, 198–99
Wichitas, 11, 30, 32–33, 281; American
Villasur, Lt. Gen. Pedro de, 34–35
traders and, 146–47, 149; Apaches at
Vore site, 22
war with, 96, 129; Comanche raids
against, 95–96, 309; Comanche trade
Wacos, 173, 174, 176, 217. See also Wichitas
with, 72, 73, 397n7; decline of, 96–97;
Wahawma, 255
economic dependence on Coman-
Warren, Abel, 156
chería, 170; European traders and, 91;
wars, Comanche-Apache, 30, 58, 65,
Guichita, 91, 94; incorporation into Co-
220–21, 350, 375n39; agricultural turn
manchería, 173–74; Iscani, 33m91, 94,
of Apaches and, 66–67; Apache retreat
96; Kadohadachos, 91, 93; Kichai, 33,
from Great Plains, 38, 75, 89–90, 101,
91, 94, 98; as major Native power, 137;
139, 349; in Arkansas basin, 35–37; on
peace with Spaniards, 130; relations with
Llano Estacado, 39–40, 49; Spaniards
Texas, 91; on reservations, 308, 312, 337;
allied with Comanches, 116–17, 128, 129;
as scouts for U.S. forces, 310, 311; semi-
Utes allied with Comanches, 32–33
sedentary life of, 346; settlement on
wars, of Comanches: with American
reservation, 300; Spanish relations with,
settlers, 306–7; with Cheyennes and
93, 94; territory of, 56; trade gateway
Arapahoes, 164–65, 168; chieftainship
of Mississippi valley and, 111. See also
and, 105; collective identity of Coman-
Taovayas
ches and, 279; Comanche way of war,
Wild West Show, 343
32, 40, 64–65, 227, 279–80, 288; cross-
Wilkinson, Gen. James, 146, 149
cultural middle ground and, 8; with
wolves, 240, 294, 429n2
Mexico/Mexicans, 212, 226; with Nava-
women: Anglo-American captives, 319;
jos, 25, 139–40; with Osages, 42, 48, 49,
Apache captives, 40; captive women
73, 92, 111, 174, 179, 284; with Pawnees,
incorporated into Comanche life, 39;
42, 73, 110, 111, 139; “peace of the mar-
“chore wives,” 257; Comanche voice in
ket” and, 38; with removed tribes in
history and, 13; Euro-American ideal
500
Index
women (continued)
chiefs, 259; geography of Comanche
of, 249; Indian women and Spanish
trading empire, 169; Kiowas at war with,
soldiers, 59; Mexican captives, 223, 225,
110; Kiowas in alliance with, 161; Little
236, 251; Spanish captives, 45, 47, 75–76,
Arkansas Treaty and, 314; northern
251
plains trade and, 164; outposts in Ute
women, Comanche, 52, 225, 240, 423n
31;
territory, 89; pan-Indian coalition and,
captives of Spaniards, 94–95; gender
338; peace agreement with New Mexico
division of labor and, 244, 288, 290,
and, 125, 126; political identities and,
347; horse wealth of elite men and, 261,
105; relations with other Comanche
262–63; malnutrition in bison crisis,
bands, 276; relocation to eastern Co-
302; polygyny and, 247–50, 252; in
manchería, 282; on reservation, 326;
raiding parties, 273; on reservation, 341;
Spanish plan of fixed hierarchy and,
revenge on enemies and, 251; treatment
135–36; at Taos fairs, 127; territory of, 63,
of female captives by, 254
79, 176, 316; Toroblanco’s war faction
world-systems, 5, 367n6
and, 117; trade with United States and,
Worth, Gen. William, 235
151; viability of bison hunting and, 329
Wounded Knee massacre, 343
Yellow Wolf, Chief, 164–65
Wyoming, 162, 321
Yzazat, Chief, 184
Yamparika Comanche (Sánchez y Tapia),
Zacatecas, 27, 221, 230; Comanche raids,
163
231, 234; silver-mining districts, 354; as
Yamparikas (Yap Eaters), 25, 62, 69, 311;
slaving frontier, 351
Document Outline
Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction: Reversed Colonialism
ONE: Conquest
TWO: New Order
THREE: The Embrace
FOUR: The Empire of the Plains
FIVE: Greater Comanchería
SIX: Children of the Sun
SEVEN: Hunger
EIGHT: Collapse
Conclusion: The Shape of Power
List of Abbreviations
Notes
Bibliography
Index A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
The Comanche Empire Page 83