The Comanche Empire

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The Comanche Empire Page 83

by Pekka Hämäläinen


  on, 96; incorporation into Coman-

  76, 80, 83, 85; shifts in policy toward

  chería, 173–74; Spanish relations with,

  Comanches, 62; strategy of, 70, 100;

  113. See also Wichitas

  trade relations viewed by, 41; United

  Taylor, Nathaniel, 322

  States as rival to, 141, 143–44, 156–59,

  Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 234, 235, 236

  184, 189, 202, 411n38; Ute-Comanche

  Tebenanaka (Sun’s Noise), Chief, 326,

  alliance and, 27–28; as world’s largest

  334

  empire, 1. See also Bourbon officials;

  technology, European, 14, 15, 16, 101, 350;

  Indian policy, Spanish; New Spain

  American traders as providers of, 148;

  Spanish Girl (A Prisoner), The (Abert), 256

  Apaches and, 57; arrival of Comanches

  Spanish language, 83, 206, 258

  in southern plains and, 19–20; Coman-

  St. Louis, 111, 151, 183

  che military mastery of, 64; metropoli-

  Sun Dance ceremony, 172, 278, 337

  tan expansion and, 353; Spanish Indian

  policy and, 203; U.S. technological

  Ta-wah-que-nah. See Tabequana

  superiority, 333

  Tabequana (Sun Eagle), Chief, 259

  Teguayo, fabled kingdom of, 21

  Tahuchimpia, Chief, 125, 133, 136, 393n42

  Tehuacana Creek, Treaty of, 218

  Tamarón y Romeral, Fray Pedro, 51, 73

  Tejanos, 197, 198, 199, 200, 214

  Tamaulipas, 220, 224, 226; Mexican-

  Tenewas (Those Who Stay Downstream),

  American War and, 236; northern vil-

  151, 169, 176, 184, 196, 311, 316; chiefs,

  lages as front line of Comanche attacks,

  210, 259, 263; Little Arkansas Treaty

  229; as slaving frontier, 351

  and, 314; relations with other Coman-

  Taos, 25, 120, 203; Apaches in, 33; Coman-

  che bands, 276; on reservation, 326;

  che raids, 27, 209; declining trade im-

  treaty with Mexico and, 281; Yamparikas

  portance of, 204; as hub of Comanche

  reinvented as, 282

  expansion, 38; maps, 56, 63, 79, 169, 176,

  Texas, Mexican, 182, 414n59; Anglo-

  316; “reverse” horse trade at, 385n33;

  American settlers in, 193–94, 358;

  Spanish settlers, 76; trade fairs, 44, 51,

  Austin’s map, 195; Comanche raids,

  Index

  497

  198; Comanche relations with, 190–93;

  grants, 305–6; revived Comanche power

  as satellite of Comanchería, 196, 199;

  after Civil War, 313–14, 316; settler-

  settlement patterns in, 198–99

  Comanche conflict in, 306–7, 311–12;

  Texas, Republic of, 156, 173, 196, 271;

  trading posts closed on frontier, 299;

  annexation by United States, 141;

  vigilante gangs, 311–12

  Comanche raiding routes and, 358; ex-

  Texas Rangers, 216, 224, 306, 310

  pansionism, 222; German immigrants,

  theft. See raiding

  305–6; Mexico’s hope to recover, 233,

  Thompson, Waddy, 250–51

  358, 418n99; militia, 174, 215; national

  Throckmorton, Gov. John W., 320

  mythology of, 201; negotiations with

  Tichinalla, Chief, 122

  Tenewas, 277; population, 179; relations

  Tixier, Victor, 155, 253, 257

  with Comanches, 47, 214–19, 230–31;

  tobacco, 27, 108, 205, 229; at chiefs’ coun-

  revolution and independence, 199–201,

  cils, 277; comanchero trade and, 205,

  213–14, 226, 228; slavery in, 179; as

  318; diplomacy and, 47, 214; as gift, 34,

  threat to Comanches, 182

  46, 114, 129, 133, 159, 184; at trading

  Texas, Spanish, 2, 5; American merchants

  fairs, 84, 153, 204

  and, 144–45, 146; Apache raids in, 89,

  Tonkawas, 58, 59, 60–61, 101, 137, 339; as

  96; Bourbon Reforms and, 108–9;

  allies of Comanches, 65, 90; collapse of

  colonial officials, 10; Comanche con-

  ties with Comanches, 90–91; Coman-

  quest of Texas plains, 57, 58; Comanche

  che war on, 98; as scouts for U.S. forces,

  raids, 5, 90, 98, 112, 143, 183, 186–88,

  310, 311, 334, 338; territory of, 56, 63, 79;

  190, 208; Comanches as allies against

  U.S. Indian policy and, 147

  Apaches, 129; cross-cultural cooperation

  Toro Echicero (Sorcerer Bull), Chief, 210

  in borderlands, 128–29; foundation as

  Toroblanco (White Bull), Chief, 117, 118

  Spanish colony, 19; governors, 185, 186;

  Tosacondata, Chief, 122, 125, 126, 135

  Mexico’s loss of, 9–10; missions, 61, 62;

  Tosapoy, Chief, 122

  as money-draining colony, 6, 353; “peace

  Tosawa, Chief, 325, 328, 435n48

  by deceit” strategy in, 137–38; peace

  Toyamancare, Chief, 122

  treaty with Comanches, 107; political

  trade: with American merchants, 144–51,

  relations with Indian nations, 114; popu-

  155–56; with British, 71; Chihuahua

  lation, 102; as satellite of Comanchería,

  Trail, 109; collapse of Comanche trad-

  98–99, 101, 237, 350; settler-colonists

  ing network, 299–303, 312, 361; Coman-

  driven out by Comanches, 4; Taovaya

  che social relations and, 15, 158–59; cul-

  power in, 93; tribute gifts to Coman-

  tural dominance of Comanchería and,

  ches, 184; urban-based society, 11; U.S.

  171–80; equestrianism and, 25; fairs,

  expansion and, 150; Wichita alliance

  38, 41, 50, 74, 122–23, 137; geography

  with, 94, 95

  of Comanche trading empire, 169; gift

  Texas, U.S. state of, 292, 303, 320, 326,

  giving and, 159; governed by Comanche

  361; Anglo-American settlers in, 305;

  principles, 48; hinterland in northern

  Anglo buffalo hunters in, 338–39, 340;

  Mexico, 219–32, 222; horses and Coman-

  cattle industry, 329–30, 331, 333–34,

  che dominance, 347; interdivisional

  342; Comanche raids, 309–10, 322, 333;

  trade of Comanches, 106; niche opened

  in Confederacy, 313; German immi-

  by Apache retreat, 38; on northern

  498

  Index

  trade (continued)

  decline of Comanches and, 292–93,

  plains, 71, 161–62; raiding alternated

  303–4, 330–31; Indian policy, 147–49,

  with, 81–83, 92, 108, 192; Santa Fe Trail

  152, 156, 322–25; Manifest Destiny ex-

  caravans, 296; south-north axis align-

  pansion, 141, 142; New Mexico absorbed

  ment on plains, 72; with Spanish Louisi-

  by, 292; Office of Indian Affairs, 300,

  ana, 71–72; Spanish “peace by deceit”

  319, 328; pan-Indian alliance against,

  strategy and, 130–34; theft and, 82; trad-

  177; quest for transcontinental empire,

  ing posts, 176, 230. See also comanchero

  4; Revolutionary War, 98, 99, 111; as

  trade; economy; merchants/traders

  rival to Spanish empire, 143–44, 156–59,

  travele
rs, 13, 64, 128, 187, 300, 324

  184, 189, 202, 411n38; Southwest expan-

  treaties, 42, 107, 220; Camp Holmes, 294,

  sion facilitated by Native expansion,

  399n22, 430n4; between France and

  233, 357–59; Texas annexed by, 214, 218;

  Spain, 35, 40; Guadalupe Hidalgo, 292,

  treaty relations with Comanches, 218,

  301, 306; Little Arkansas, 314, 319, 324;

  314; as ultimate beneficiary of Coman-

  Medicine Lodge, 322–23, 330, 331, 336,

  che dominance, 3; wars with Plains

  437–38n6; with Mexico, 281; with New

  Indians, 342–43, 356, 361; West Florida

  Mexico, 69–70, 104, 117–24; with other

  border, 112. See also Louisiana Purchase

  Native nations, 281; “Peace and Amity,”

  Urrea, Gov. Mariano, 191

  215; between Spaniards and Coman-

  U.S. Army, 49, 165, 214, 223; Comanche

  ches, 47–48; Tehuacana Creek, 218;

  chiefs and, 274; expeditions against

  Treaty of Paris, 68, 69, 100; with United

  Comanches, 305, 309, 310–11; horses

  States, 300, 304, 322–25; Velasco, 213

  of, 246; Indian Office at odds with, 328;

  tribute, 2, 9, 223, 229–30, 349, 352, 366n4;

  Indian scouts and auxiliaries, 300, 334,

  client states, 275; encomienda grants, 26;

  338; invasion of Comanchería (1870s),

  extorted from colonial outposts, 12; to

  333–41, 340; in Mexican-American War,

  Spanish empire, 42. See also gifts

  233–37, 358, 419n106; total war policy

  Trigger, Bruce, 14–15

  against Plains Indians, 332–33; war with

  Trimble, W. A., 149–50

  Lakotas, 321–22; welcomed in heart of

  Trudeau, Zenon, 160

  Comanchería, 286–89, 287

  Turner, Frederick Jackson, 7

  Usner, Daniel, 8

  Tutsayatuhovit (Black Prairie Dog), Chief,

  Utes, 17, 101, 137, 161, 380n81; allied with

  161, 259

  Spanish empire, 109, 355; collapse of

  Comanche alliance, 49–50, 65, 88;

  Ugarte y Loyola, Jacobo, 125–27, 128, 136,

  Comanches as allies, 20, 24–26, 40, 44,

  144

  379n68; Comanches at war with, 50, 55,

  Ulibarrí, Juan de, 28

  121, 139; diplomacy and, 124; home terri-

  United States, 9, 18, 228, 345, 350; centen-

  tory, 23–24, 219; migration of, 28; peace

  nial celebration, 342; “Comanche bar-

  agreement with New Mexico and, 120,

  rier” to western expansion of, 343–45;

  121, 130; plains culture and, 50; raids in

  Comanche raids on Spanish/Mexican

  New Mexico, 208; slave markets of New

  territories and, 188–90, 193, 432n18;

  Mexico and, 26, 27, 355–56; territory of,

  comanchero trade and, 301; Comanches

  56, 79, 88, 111

  recognized as sovereign nation by, 47;

  Uto-Aztecan languages, 21

  Index

  499

  Valle, Gov. Francisco Marín del, 50–51

  Indian Territory, 300–301; with Span-

  Valverde y Cosío, Gov. Antonio, 28, 33, 34

  iards, 42–46, 52, 61, 65, 78, 81, 109–10,

  Van Dorn, Brev. Maj. Earl, 311

  184–87; with Texas Republic, 215, 216;

  Varo, Fray Andres, 45

  with United States, 332–33, 333–41,

  Velasco, Treaty of, 213

  340; with Utes, 49, 50, 55, 121, 139; war

  Vial, Pedro, 113–15, 116, 118, 130, 392n24;

  among Native peoples, 22–23, 26; with

  on nomadism and horse herding, 241; as

  Wichitas (Taovayas), 98, 387n51

  truce mediator in Comanche-Pawnee

  Webb, James Josiah, 231

  war, 160

  Webb, Walter Prescott, 343–44

  Vigil, Donaciano, 236

  Weber, David, 10

  villages, Native, 9, 71; Apache, 23, 27, 28,

  West Florida, British, 72, 92, 93, 100, 112

  32, 40, 89–90; Comanche winter vil-

  Western Comanches in War Dress (Sán-

  lages, 25, 283, 285; Taovaya (Wichita),

  chez y Tapia), 268

  95

  Wharton, William H., 200–201

  villages, Spanish and Mexican, 74, 225;

  White, Richard, 8, 370n20

  Apache raids on, 80; Comanche raids

  Whitfield, John W., 297, 299, 304, 433n22

  on, 77, 80, 306; Tejano, 198–99

  Wichitas, 11, 30, 32–33, 281; American

  Villasur, Lt. Gen. Pedro de, 34–35

  traders and, 146–47, 149; Apaches at

  Vore site, 22

  war with, 96, 129; Comanche raids

  against, 95–96, 309; Comanche trade

  Wacos, 173, 174, 176, 217. See also Wichitas

  with, 72, 73, 397n7; decline of, 96–97;

  Wahawma, 255

  economic dependence on Coman-

  Warren, Abel, 156

  chería, 170; European traders and, 91;

  wars, Comanche-Apache, 30, 58, 65,

  Guichita, 91, 94; incorporation into Co-

  220–21, 350, 375n39; agricultural turn

  manchería, 173–74; Iscani, 33m91, 94,

  of Apaches and, 66–67; Apache retreat

  96; Kadohadachos, 91, 93; Kichai, 33,

  from Great Plains, 38, 75, 89–90, 101,

  91, 94, 98; as major Native power, 137;

  139, 349; in Arkansas basin, 35–37; on

  peace with Spaniards, 130; relations with

  Llano Estacado, 39–40, 49; Spaniards

  Texas, 91; on reservations, 308, 312, 337;

  allied with Comanches, 116–17, 128, 129;

  as scouts for U.S. forces, 310, 311; semi-

  Utes allied with Comanches, 32–33

  sedentary life of, 346; settlement on

  wars, of Comanches: with American

  reservation, 300; Spanish relations with,

  settlers, 306–7; with Cheyennes and

  93, 94; territory of, 56; trade gateway

  Arapahoes, 164–65, 168; chieftainship

  of Mississippi valley and, 111. See also

  and, 105; collective identity of Coman-

  Taovayas

  ches and, 279; Comanche way of war,

  Wild West Show, 343

  32, 40, 64–65, 227, 279–80, 288; cross-

  Wilkinson, Gen. James, 146, 149

  cultural middle ground and, 8; with

  wolves, 240, 294, 429n2

  Mexico/Mexicans, 212, 226; with Nava-

  women: Anglo-American captives, 319;

  jos, 25, 139–40; with Osages, 42, 48, 49,

  Apache captives, 40; captive women

  73, 92, 111, 174, 179, 284; with Pawnees,

  incorporated into Comanche life, 39;

  42, 73, 110, 111, 139; “peace of the mar-

  “chore wives,” 257; Comanche voice in

  ket” and, 38; with removed tribes in

  history and, 13; Euro-American ideal

  500

  Index

  women (continued)

  chiefs, 259; geography of Comanche

  of, 249; Indian women and Spanish

  trading empire, 169; Kiowas at war with,

  soldiers, 59; Mexican captives, 223, 225,

  110; Kiowas in alliance with, 161; Little

  236, 251; Spanish captives, 45, 47, 75–76,

  Arkansas Treaty and, 314; northern

  251

  plains trade and, 164; outposts in Ute

  women, Comanche, 52, 225, 240, 423n
31;

  territory, 89; pan-Indian coalition and,

  captives of Spaniards, 94–95; gender

  338; peace agreement with New Mexico

  division of labor and, 244, 288, 290,

  and, 125, 126; political identities and,

  347; horse wealth of elite men and, 261,

  105; relations with other Comanche

  262–63; malnutrition in bison crisis,

  bands, 276; relocation to eastern Co-

  302; polygyny and, 247–50, 252; in

  manchería, 282; on reservation, 326;

  raiding parties, 273; on reservation, 341;

  Spanish plan of fixed hierarchy and,

  revenge on enemies and, 251; treatment

  135–36; at Taos fairs, 127; territory of, 63,

  of female captives by, 254

  79, 176, 316; Toroblanco’s war faction

  world-systems, 5, 367n6

  and, 117; trade with United States and,

  Worth, Gen. William, 235

  151; viability of bison hunting and, 329

  Wounded Knee massacre, 343

  Yellow Wolf, Chief, 164–65

  Wyoming, 162, 321

  Yzazat, Chief, 184

  Yamparika Comanche (Sánchez y Tapia),

  Zacatecas, 27, 221, 230; Comanche raids,

  163

  231, 234; silver-mining districts, 354; as

  Yamparikas (Yap Eaters), 25, 62, 69, 311;

  slaving frontier, 351

  Document Outline

  Contents

  Acknowledgments

  Introduction: Reversed Colonialism

  ONE: Conquest

  TWO: New Order

  THREE: The Embrace

  FOUR: The Empire of the Plains

  FIVE: Greater Comanchería

  SIX: Children of the Sun

  SEVEN: Hunger

  EIGHT: Collapse

  Conclusion: The Shape of Power

  List of Abbreviations

  Notes

  Bibliography

  Index A

  B

  C

  D

  E

  F

  G

  H

  I

  J

  K

  L

  M

  N

  O

  P

  Q

  R

  S

  T

  U

  V

  W

  Y

  Z

 

 

 


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