Invisible Women

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Invisible Women Page 36

by Caroline Criado Perez


  39 Caliskan, A., Bryson, J. J. and Narayanan, A. (2017), ‘Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases’, Science, 356:6334, 183–6, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aal4230

  40 Bolukbasi, Tolga, Chang, Kai-Wei, Zou, James, Saligrama, Venkatesh and Kalai, Adam (2016), ‘Man is to Computer Programmer as Woman is to Homemaker? Debiasing Word Embeddings’, 30th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2016), Barcelona, http://papers.nips.cc/paper/6228-man-is-to-computer-programmer-as-woman-is-to-homemaker-debiasing-word-embeddings.pdf

  41 Chang et al. (2017)

  42 https://www.wired.com/story/machines-taught-by-photos-learn-a-sexist-view-of-women?mbid=social_fb

  43 https://metode.org/issues/monographs/londa-schiebinger.html

  44 https://phys.org/news/2016–09-gender-bias-algorithms.html

  45 https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/01/how-algorithms-rule-our-working-lives

  46 https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/04/robots-screen-candidates-for-jobs-artificial-intelligence?CMP=twt_gu

  47 https://www.techemergence.com/machine-learning-medical-diagnostics-4-current-applications/

  48 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-42357257

  49 Bolukbasi et al. (2016)

  Chapter 9

  1 https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/news/articles/2017–09-21/a-smart-breast-pump-mothers-love-it-vcs-don-t

  2 Ibid.

  3 https://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/why-arent-mothers-worth-anything-to-venture-capitalists/amp

  4 Ibid.

  5 Ibid.

  6 Ibid.

  7 https://hbr.org/2017/05/we-recorded-vcs-conversations-and-analyzed-how-differently-they-talk-about-female-entrepreneurs

  8 https://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/why-arent-mothers-worth-anything-to-venture-capitalists/amp

  9 https://www.bcg.com/publications/2018/why-women-owned-startups-are-better-bet.aspx

  10 https://www.bi.edu/research/business-review/articles/2014/03/personality-for-leadership/

  11 https://www.bcg.com/publications/2018/how-diverse-leadership-teams-boost-innovation.aspx

  12 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-39567240

  13 http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/2014/08/08/theresia-gouw-no-more-pipeline-excuses/

  14 http://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6323/389

  15 http://www.theverge.com/2014/9/25/6844021/apple-promised-an-expansive-health-app-so-why-cant-i-track

  16 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/how-self-tracking-apps-exclude-women/383673/; http://www.theverge.com/2014/9/25/6844021/apple-promised-an-expansive-health-app-so-why-cant-i-track; http://www.techtimes.com/articles/16574/20140926/apple-healthkit-period-tracker.htm; http://nymag.com/thecut/2014/09/new-iphone-grossed-outby-our-periods.html

  17 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/8930130/Apple-iPhone-search-Siri-helps-users-find-prostitutes-and-Viagra-but-not-an-abortion.html

  18 https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/14/hey-siri-can-i-rely-on-youin-a-crisis-not-always-a-study-finds/

  19 https://medium.com/hh-design/the-world-is-designed-for-mend06640654491#.piekpq2tt

  20 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/how-self-tracking-apps-exclude-women/383673/

  21 Lupton, Deborah (2015), ‘Quantified sex: a critical analysis of sexual and reproductive self-tracking using apps’, Culture, Health & Sexuality, 17:4

  22 Nelson, M. Benjamin, Kaminsky, Leonard A., D. Dickin, Clark and Montoye, Alexander H. K. (2016), ‘Validity of Consumer-Based Physical Activity Monitors for Specific Activity Types’, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48:8, 1619–28

  23 Murakami, H, Kawakami, R., Nakae, S., Nakata, Y., Ishikawa-Takata, K., Tanaka, S. and Miyachi, M. (2016), ‘Accuracy of Wearable Devices for Estimating Total Energy Expenditure: Comparison With Metabolic Chamber and Doubly Labeled Water Method’, JAMA Internal Medicine, 176:5, 702–3

  24 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/robots.html#tabs-2

  25 Wolfson, Leslie, Whipple, Robert, Derby, Carl A., Amerman, Paula and Nashner, Lewis (1994), Gender Differences in the Balance of Healthy Elderly as Demonstrated by Dynamic Posturography, Journal of Gerontology, 49:4, 160–167; Stevens, J. A. and Sogolow, E. D. (2005), ‘Gender differences for non-fatal unintentional fall related injuries among older adults’, Injury Prevention, 11, 115–19

  26 Ibid.

  27 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4750302/

  28 Chang, Vicky C. and Minh, T. (2015), ‘Risk Factors for Falls Among Seniors: Implications of Gender’, American Journal of Epidemiology, 181:7, 521–31

  29 Yin, Hujun et al eds. (2016) Intelligent Data Engineering and Automated Learning, Proceedings of the 17th International Conference, Yangzhou China

  30 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/12/how-self-tracking-apps-exclude-women/383673/

  31 https://www.afdb.org/en/blogs/investing-in-gender-equality-for-africa%E2%80%99s-transformation/post/technology-women-and-africa-access-use-creation-and-leadership-13999/]

  32 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016–06-23/artificial-intelligence-has-a-sea-of-dudes-problem

  33 http://interactions.acm.org/archive/view/january-february-2014/areyou-sure-your-software-is-gender-neutral

  34 http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/01/16/women-vs-the-machine/

  35 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016–06-23/artificial-intelligence-has-a-sea-of-dudes-problem

  36 https://www.ncwit.org/sites/default/files/resources/btn_03232017_web.pdf

  37 https://www.ft.com/content/ca324dcc-dcb0-11e6-86ac-f253db7791c6

  38 https://www.theverge.com/2016/1/11/10749932/vr-hardware-needs-to-fit-women-too

  39 https://mic.com/articles/142579/virtual-reality-has-a-sexual-harassment-problem-what-can-we-do-to-stop-it#.ISQgjAanK

  40 https://mic.com/articles/157415/my-first-virtual-reality-groping-sexual-assault-in-vr-harassment-in-tech-jordan-belamire#.5lnAqHFW1

  41 http://uploadvr.com/dealing-with-harassment-in-vr/

  42 Ibid.

  43 https://www.newscientist.com/article/2115648-posture-could-explain-why-women-get-more-vr-sickness-than-men/

  44 https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3628-women-need-widescreenfor-virtual-navigation

  45 https://qz.com/192874/is-the-oculus-rift-designed-to-be-sexist/

  46 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a

  47 ‘Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research’ (2013), report of the Expert Group ‘Innovation Through Gender’ (chairperson: Londa Schiebinger, rapporteur: Ineke Klinge), Directorate General for Research and Innovation, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union

  48 https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov/Api/Public/ViewPublication/811766

  49 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a

  50 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2

  51 Ibid.

  52 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a

  53 Linder, Astrid and Svedberg, Wanna (2018), ‘Occupant Safety Assessment in European Regulatory Tests: Review of Occupant Models, Gaps and Suggestion for Bridging Any Gaps’, conference paper, ‘Road Safety on Five Continents’ South Korea, May 2018

  54 http://sciencenordic.com/gender-equality-crash-test-dummies-too

  55 Linder and Svedberg (2018)

  56 United States Government Publishing Office, ‘U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. 2011. 49 CFR U, -2RE Side Impact Crash Test Dummy, 50th Percentile Adult Male’. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/CFR-2011-title49-vol7/CFR-2011-title49-vol7-part572-subpartU

  57 Linder
and Svedberg (2018)

  58 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2

  59 http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/leru-paper-gendered-research-and-innovation.pdf; Londa Schiebinger and Martina Schraudner (2011), ‘Inter-disciplinary Approaches to Achieving Gendered Innovations in Science, Medicine, and Engineering’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 36:2 (June 2011), 154–67

  60 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2

  61 ‘Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research’ (2013)

  62 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/crash.html#tabs-2

  63 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/female-dummy-makes-her-mark-on-male-dominated-crash-tests/2012/03/07/gIQANBLjaS_story.html?utm_term=.5ec23738142a

  64 ‘Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research’ (2013)

  65 http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-understanding-our-diverse-communities.pdf; http://www.wnyc.org/story/283137-census-data-show-public-transit-gender-gap/

  66 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:41f89a28-1fc6-4c92-b1c8-03327d1b1ecc.0007.02/DOC_1&format=PDF

  Chapter 10

  1 Marts, Sherry A. and Keitt, Sarah (2004), ‘Principles of Sex-based Differences in Physiology: Foreword: a historical overview of advocacy for research in sex based biology’, Advances in Molecular and Cell Biology, 34, 1–333

  2 A Medline search shows that the male norm remains, as practice guidelines and research examples are still often expressed in terms of the typical 70 kg man: Marts and Keitt (2004)

  3 Pages 17–18

  4 Plataforma SINC (2008), ‘Medical Textbooks Use White, Heterosexual Men As A ‘Universal Model’, ScienceDaily, .

  5 Dijkstra, A. F, Verdonk, P. and Lagro-Janssen, A. L. M. (2008), ‘Gender bias in medical textbooks: examples from coronary heart disease, depression, alcohol abuse and pharmacology’, Medical Education, 42:10, 1021–8

  6 http://www.marieclaire.com/health-fitness/a26741/doctors-treat-women-like-men/

  7 Dijkstra et al. (2008)

  8 Henrich, Janet B. and Viscoli, Catherine M. (2006), ‘What Do Medical Schools Teach about Women’s Health and Gender Differences?’ Academic Medicine, 81:5

  9 Song, Michael M. Jones, Betsy G. and Casanova, Robert A. (2016), ‘Auditing sex- and gender-based medicine (SGBM) content in medical school curriculum: a student scholar model’, Biology of Sex Differences, 7:Suppl 1, 40

  10 Marts and Keitt (2004)

  11 Karp, Natasha A. et al (2017), ‘Prevalence of sexual dimorphism in mammalian phenotypic traits’, Nature Communications, 8:15475

  12 Martha L. Blair (2007), ‘Sex-based differences in physiology: what should we teach in the medical curriculum?’, Advanced Physiological Education, 31, 23–5

  13 Ibid.

  14 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4800017/ Jan 2016

  15 https://theconversation.com/man-flu-is-real-but-women-get-more-autoimmune-diseases-and-allergies-77248

  16 https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/why-do-autoimmune-diseases-affect-women-more-often-than-men/2016/10/17/3e224db2-8429-11e6-ac72-a29979381495_story.html?utm_term=.acef157fc395

  17 http://www.nature.com/news/infections-reveal-inequality-between-the-sexes-1.20131?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureNews

  18 Ibid.

  19 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4157517/

  20 Ibid.

  21 http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2010_Schwartz_SexSpecific_MolAut.pdf

  22 Clayton, Janine Austin (2015), ‘Studying both sexes: a guiding principle for biomedicine’, http://www.fasebj.org/content/early/2015/10/28/fj.15–279554.full.pdf+html

  23 Ibid.

  24 Ibid.

  25 https://theconversation.com/not-just-about-sex-throughout-our-bodies-thousands-of-genes-act-differently-in-men-and-women-86613

  26 Holdcroft, Anita, Snidvongs, Saowarat and Berkley, Karen J. (2011), ‘Incorporating Gender and Sex Dimensions in Medical Research’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 36:2, 180–92

  27 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015, ZonMw, Netherlands, http://www.genderportal.eu/sites/default/files/resource_pool/Gender%20%26%20Health%20Knowledge%20Agenda_0.pdf

  28 Pollitzer, Elizabeth (2013), ‘Cell sex matters’, Nature, 500, 23–24

  29 Londa Schiebinger (2014), ‘Gendered innovations: harnessing the creative power of sex and gender analysis to discover new ideas and develop new technologies’, Triple Helix, 1:9

  30 Cristiana Vitale et al. (2017), ‘Under-representation of elderly and women in clinical trials’, International Journal of Cardiology, 232, 216–21

  31 The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2014), ‘Women and HIV/AIDS in the United States’; women also experience different clinical symptoms and complications due to HIV disease

  32 http://www.who.int/gender/hiv_aids/hivaids1103.pdf

  33 Curno, Mirjam J. et al. (2016), ‘A Systematic Review of the Inclusion (or Exclusion) of Women in HIV Research: From Clinical Studies of Antiretrovirals and Vaccines to Cure Strategies’, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 1:71(2) (February 2016),. 181–8

  34 http://www.wpro.who.int/topics/gender_issues/Takingsexandgenderintoaccount.pdf

  35 Ibid.

  36 Hughes, Robert N. (2007), ‘Sex does matter: comments on the prevalence of male-only investigations of drug effects on rodent behaviour’, Behavioural Pharmacology, 18:7, 583–9

  37 http://helix.northwestern.edu/article/thalidomide-tragedy-lessons-drug-safety-and-regulation

  38 https://www.smh.com.au/national/the-50-year-global-cover-up-20120725-22r5c.html

  39 http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/themes/controversies/thalidomide

  40 Marts and Keitt (2004)

  41 http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/08/20/why-are-so-many-women-dying-from-ebola/

  42 R. D. Fields (2014), ‘Vive la différence requiring medical researchers to test males and females in every experiment sounds reasonable, but it is a bad idea’, Scientific American, 311, 14

  43 Richardson, S. S., Reiches, M., Shattuck-Heidorn, H., LaBonte, M. L. and Consoli, T. (2015), ‘Opinion: focus on preclinical sex differences will not address women’s and men’s health disparities’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 112, 13419–20

  44 Holdcroft, Anita (2007) ‘Gender bias in research: how does it affect evidence based medicine?’, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 100

  45 Ibarra, Manuel, Vázquez, Marta and Fagiolino, Pietro (2017), ‘Sex Effect on Average Bioequivalence’, Clinical Therapeutics, 39:1, 23–33

  46 Mergaert, Lut and Lombardo, Emanuela (2014), ‘Resistance to implementing gender mainstreaming in EU research policy’, in Weiner, Elaine and MacRae, Heather (eds.), ‘The persistent invisibility of gender in EU policy’, European Integration online Papers (EIoP), special issue 1, Vol. 18, Article 5, 1–21

  47 Ibid.

  48 Ibid.

  49 Hughes (2007)

  50 Pinnow, Ellen, Herz, Naomi, Loyo-Berrios, Nilsa and Tarver, Michelle (2014), ‘Enrollment and Monitoring of Women in Post-Approval Studies for Medical Devices Mandated by the Food and Drug Adminstration’, Journal of Women’s Health, 23:3 (March 2014), 218–23

  51 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002870310000864

  52 Labots, G., Jones, A., Visser, S. J. de, Rissmann, R. and Burggraaf, J. (2018), ‘Gender differences in clinical registration trials: is there a real problem?’, British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology

  53 McGregor, Alyson J. (2017), ‘The Effects of Sex and Gender on Pharmacologic Toxicity: Implications for Clinical Therapy’, Clinical Therapeutics, 39:1

  54 Ibid.

  55 Ibid.

  56 Ibid.

  57 Bruinvels, G. et al. (2016), ‘Sport, exercise and the menstrual cycle: where is the research?’, British Journal of Sports Medicine,
51:6, 487–488

  58 Zopf, Y. et al. (2008), ‘Women encounter ADRs more often than do men’, European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 64:999

  59 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC198535/

  60 Soldin, Offie P., Chung, Sarah H. and Mattison, Donald R. (2011), ‘Sex Differences in Drug Disposition’, Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 2011:187103; Anderson, Gail D. (2005), ‘Sex And Racial Differences In Pharmacological Response: Where Is The Evidence? Pharmacogenetics, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics’, Journal of Women’s Health, 14:1, http://online.liebertpub.com.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/doi/pdf/10.1089/jwh.2005.14.19

  61 Anderson (2005)

  62 Hughes (2007)

  63 Yoon, Dustin Y. et al. (2014), ‘Sex bias exists in basic science and translational surgical research’, Surgery, 156:3, 508–16

  64 https://thinkprogress.org/scientists-avoid-studying-womens-bodies-because-they-get-periods-3fe9d6c39268/

  65 Yoon et al. (2014)

  66 Karp (2017)

  67 Hughes (2007)

  68 Yoon et al. (2014)

  69 Ibid.

  70 Ibid.

  71 Ortona, Elena, Delunardo, Federica, Baggio, Giovannella and Malorni, Walter (2016), ‘A sex and gender perspective in medicine: A new Mandatory Challenge For Human Health’, Ann Ist Super Sanità, 52:2, 146–8

  72 J. Peretz et al. (2016), ‘Estrogenic compounds reduce influenza A virus in primary human nasal epithelial cells derived from female, but not male, donors’, American Journal of Physiology, 310:5, 415–425

  73 http://protomag.com/articles/pain-women-pain-men

  74 https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28064-female-viagra-has-been-approved-heres-what-you-need-to-know/

  75 Anderson (2005); Whitley, Heather P. and Lindsey, Wesley (2009), ‘Sex-Based Differences in Drug Activity’, American Family Physician, 80:11 (December 2009), 1254–8

  76 https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2015/022526REMS.pdf

  77 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4800017/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20799923; Howard, Louise M., Ehrlich, Anna M., Gamlen, Freya and Oram, Sian (2017), ‘Gender-neutral mental health research is sex and gender biased’, Lancet Psychiatry, 4:1, 9–11

 

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