by Will Durant
31. Faÿ Louis XVI, 308; Taine, French Revolution , I, 2.
32. Aulard, I, 129; Michelet, French Revolution , 73.
33. Lichtenberger, 20; Martin, H., XVI, 630n.
34. Tocqueville, 121.
35. Herbert, Fall of Feudalism , 76, 87.
36. Ibid ., 76.
37. CMH , VIII, 128.
38. Barthou, Louis, Mirabeau , 11.
39. Ibid ., 62.
40. 68.
41. Michelet, Histoire de France , V, 515.
42. Crocker, Embattled Philosopher , 436.
43. Barthou, 91.
44. Ibid ., 97.
45. 118.
46. 138.
47. 162.
48. 163; Martin, H., France , XVI, 624.
49. Jaurès, I, 77.
50. Michelet, Histoire de France , V, 554.
51. Herbert, Fall of Feudalism , 95.
52. Taine, French Revolution , I, 17.
53. Taine, Ancient Regime , 378.
54. Martin, H., France , XVI, 625.
55. Lefebvre, 94.
56. Enc . Brit., XVI, 909d.
57. Faÿ Louis XVI, 312.
58. Ibid ., 305.
59. Enc . Brit., XII, 491b.
60. Taine, French Revolution , I, 28.
61. Enc . Brit., XII, 491b.
62. Taine, I, 28.
63. CMH , VIII, 133; Cobban, History of Modern France , I, 140.
64. Barthou, 171.
65. Young, Arthur, 153.
66. Lefebvre, 72.
67. Young, 176.
68. Lefebvre, 76.
69. Young, 176.
70. Lefebvre, 77.
71. Young, 177.
72. Michelet, French Revolution , 137; Lefebvre, 80-81.
73. Speech of July 8, 1789, in Barthou, 186.
74. Mme. Campan, Memoirs , I, 358.
75. Mme. de Staël, Considérations Sur la Révolution française, in Ducros, French Society , 316.
76. Kropotkin, Peter, The Great French Revolution , 61-63.
77. Michelet, French Revolution , 133.
78. Ibid ., 141.
79. Lefebvre, 86.
80. Taine, French Revolution , I, 42.
81. Michelet, French Revolution , 150.
82. Lefebvre, 101.
Index
Dates in parentheses following a name are of birth and death except when preceded by r ., when they indicate duration of reign for popes and rulers of states. A single date preceded by fl . denotes a floruit . A footnote is indicated by an asterisk. Italicized page numbers indicate principal treatment. All dates are A.D. unless otherwise noted.
Abbas I, Shah of Persia (r. 1587–1629), 421
Abbas III, Shah of Persia (r. 1732–36), 149, 418
Abbaye, Béardé de l’, 454
Abbeville, 932–33
A, B, C, L ’ (Voltaire), 143
Abduction from the Seraglio (Mozart), 367
Abdul-Hamid I, Ottoman Sultan (r. 1774–89), 415, 460
Abélard, Pierre (1079–1142), 112
Aberdeen, University of, 763
Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache (Herder), 569
Abington, Frances, nee Barton (1737–1815), 740
Åbo, University of, 659
Abrégé chronologique de l’histoire de France (Hénault), 123
Abt, Thomas (fl. 1763), 638
abu’l-Ahahab (fl. 1771), 415
academic freedom, 358
Académie de Peinture, 235
Académie des Sciences, 894, 896
Académie Française, see French Academy
Academy of Arts, Russian, 432, 466, 468
Academy of Dijon, 19–20, 22, 28
Academy of Mines, Russian, 453
Academy of San Fernando, 297, 299
Accademia della Crusca, 824
Accademia di Pittura e Scultura, Venice, 236
Accademia Filarmonica, 245, 386–87
Accademia Granelleschi, 242
Account of Corsica, The Journal of a Tour of That Island, and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli (Boswell), 783
Account of the Latest Herculaneum Discoveries (Winckelmann), 328
actors, see theater
Adam, James (d. 1794), 747–48, 765
Adam, John, 747–48, 765
Adam, Lambert-Sigisbert (1700–59), 247
Adam, Père (fl. 1765), 133
Adam, Robert (1728–92), 699, 747–48, 765
Adam, William (fl. 1770), 694, 732, 747–48, 765
Adams, Mrs. (Rousseau’s landlady, 1766), 210
Adams, John (1735–1826), 870
Adams, John Quincy (1767–1848), 576
Adams, Samuel (1722–1803), 709
Adams, Dr. William (1706–89), 838
Addison, Joseph (1672–1719), 320, 485, 842
Adélaïde de France, Madame (1732–1800), 96
Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, King of Sweden (r. 1751–71), 655
Adonais (Shelley), 810
adultery, 97, 731
“Advantages that the Establishment of Christianity Has Conferred Upon the Human Race, The” (Turgot), 77
Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Find-Out, The (Krasicki), 485
advertisements, newspaper, 786
Aegean Isles, 411
Afghanistan, 417–18
Africa, 356
African Company, 732
African slavery, see slavery and slave trade
Agde, riots in, 954
Agnesi, Maria Gaetana (1718–99), 219
agriculture: in Austria, 345, 356
in England, 670–71, 680, 682
in France, 859, 861, 927–31
in Holland, 646
in Italy, 217
in Hungary, 341
in Poland, 472–73
in Spain, 273–74, 287–88
Agrigento, 589
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius (63–12 B.C.), 110
Ahmad Hatif, Sayyid (fl. 1750), Persian poet, 421
Ahmed III, Ottoman Sultan (r. 1703–30), 414–15
Ahmed Khan Durani, Shah of Afghanistan (r. 1747–73), 420
aides, 936
Aiguillon, Anne-Charlotte de Crussol de Florensac, Duchesse d’, 118
Aiguillon, Armand de Vignerot, Duc d’ (b. 1750), deputy in States-General, 957
Aiguillon, Emmanuel-Armand de Vignerot, Duc d’ (1720–82), French statesman, 89, 92–93, 853
Aims of Jesus and His Disciples, The (Reimarus), 513
Aix-en-Provence, riots in, 934
Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of (1748), 38, 40, 58, 279, 648
Ajaccio, 312
Alam, see Shah Alam
Alba, Duke of (1508–82), see Alva
Alba, Don José de Toledo Osorio, Duke of (d. 1796), 274, 280, 303
Alba, Teresa Cayetana María del Pilar, Duchess of (1762–1803), 291, 303–4
Albani, Alessandro, Cardinal (1692–1779), 328
Albani, Villa, 249, 331
Albania, 415
Albany, Count of, see Stuart, Charles Edward
Albany, Louise Caroline of Stolberg-Gedern, Countess of (1752–1824), 339–40
Alberoni, Giulio, Cardinal (1664–1752), . 277–78
Albert (1738–1822), Duke of Saxe-Teschen, 361, 846
Albon, Comtesse Julie d’ (fl. 1732), 122
Alcázar, 297
Alceste (Gluck), 369–71, 373
Alembert, Jean Le Rond d’ (1717–83), 108, 118, 120, 123–30, 172, 190, 214, 280, 485, 567, 636, 656, 769, 824, 894, 908, 920
Abarca’s intimacy with, 281
abilities of, 127
Catherine II and, 447, 892
contributions to Encyclopédie, 123, 162
death of, 892
deference to royalty, 176
Diderot and, 892
Mme. du Deffand and, 123–25
early life of, 123
on expulsion of Spanish Jesuits, 284
Frederick II and, 124, 497–98, 892
French Revolution and, 940
on German literature, 506
Goldoni and, 798
Hume and, 892
Julie de Lespinasse and, 122–28, 130, 892
later years of, 892
on Louis XVI, 857
nature and, 169
poverty of, 126
Rousseau and, 163, 191
supporter of Puccini, 372
Voltaire and, 125, 138, 876–77
Alexander I, Czar of Russia (r. 1801–25), 462, 466, 468
Alexander Palace, Tsarskoe Selo, 468
Alexander the Great, King of Macedon (r. 336–323 B.C.), 895
Alexis Petrovich, Czarevich (1690–1713), 429
Alfieri, Benedetto (1700–67), architect, 226
Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte di Cortemilia (1749–1803), dramatist, 310, 336–40
Alfonso II d’Este, Duke of Ferrara (r. 1559–97), 584–85
Algarotti, Conte Francesco (1712–64), 238, 254, 370
Algeria, 411
Ali Bey (1728–73), 415
‘Ali Hazin, Shaykh (1692–1767), 421
Allegri, Gregorio (1582–1652), 386
Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (Kant), 533
Allgemeine Preussische Landrecht (1791), 500
Allgemeine Schulordnung (1774), 352
Almada e Mendonça, Francisco de (d. 1804), 263
Alps, 169
Altham, machine-wrecking at, 679
Altona, Jews in, 635
Alva, Duke and Duchess of (18th cent.), see Alba
Alva, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of (1508–82), 592
A Marilia (Gonzaga), 269
Amelia, Princess (1782–1810), dau. of George III, 727
America: English colonies in, see American colonies, English
French colonies in, see French America;
Portuguese colonies in, 262–63, 269
Seven Years’ War and, 57–58
slave trade and, see slavery and slave trade;
Spanish colonies in, 80, 83, 262, 288
Voltaire’s influence on, 881
“America libera” (Alfieri), 340
American colonies, English, 669
commerce and, 57, 708–9, 732–33
early conflicts with England, 708–11
population of, 708
revolt of, see American Revolution;
slave trade and, 57, 708, 732–33
American Indians, 709, 833
accounts of, 31
Jefferson on, 891
Jesuit communists and, 80, 83, 262
American Revolution, 78, 683
aided by European powers, 354, 711, 867–72, 922
battles in, 713–14, 869, 871
Beaumarchais’ services to, 867–69, 922
Burke’s support to, 693, 711–14
early predictions of, 708
English reactions to, 689, 693, 704, 711–14, 833
France and, 354, 711, 867–72
French Revolution and, 872
George III and, 687
German mercenaries and, 504
Gustavus III’s fear of, 662
influence of, 520, 872, 899
Johnson’s opposition to, 833
Kant’s support for, 548
Lafayette’s aid to, 869, 871–72
outbreak of, 711
peace treaties (1782–83), 871–72
philosophes and, 867–68
Pitt the Elder and, 689
Rousseau’s influence on, 891
Spain and, 290
surrender at Yorktown (1781), 761
Ami des hommes, ou Traité de la population, L ’ (Mirabeau the Elder), 74
Amiens: factories in, 932
Peace of (1802), 726
riots in, 954
unemployment in, 935
Amigoni, Jacopo (1675–1752), 235, 298
Amleto (Scarlatti), 257
Amsterdam, 361, 646
Jews in, 637
publishing in, 647
An die Freude (Schiller), 574–75
An die Freunde Lessings (Mendelssohn), 640
Anabaptists, 646
Anacreon (563–478 B.C.), 18
anarchism, 178
anatomy, Goethe’s work on, 617
Anaxagoras (500?–428? B.C.), 176
Ancre, Maréchal d’ (Concino Concini; d. 1617), 93
Andalusia, 273
Andrews, Dr. (fl. 1762), 798
Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson, LL.D., during the Last Twenty Years of His Life (Thrale), 828, 840
Anecdotes of Painting in England (Walpole), 794
Anet, Claude (d. 1734), 12–13
Angelucci, Guglielmo (fl. 1773), 922
Anglican Church, 261, 711, 734–35
Anhalt, in League of Princes (1785), 362
Anhalt-Zerbst, Prince of, see Christian August
Anhalt-Zerbst, Princess of, see Johanna Elisabeth
Ankarström, Jakob (1762–92), 664–65
Anna Amalie, Dowager Duchess and Regent of Saxe-Weimar (r. 1758–75), 552, 580, 591, 600
Anna Ivanovna, Empress of Russia, (r. 1730–40), 425
reign of, 429–30
Anna Leopoldovna (1718–46), Regent of Russia (r. 1740–41), 430–31
Anna Petrovna (d. 1728), 429, 432
Annales politiques (Linguet), 82
Annalia d’Italia (Muratori), 244
Anne, Princess, Regent of Holland (r. 1751–59), 648
Anne, Queen of Great Britain (r. 1702–14), 818
Anne of Saxe-Lauenburg (fl. 1697), 228
Année littéraire, L, ’ 372
Ansbach, 354
in League of Princes (1785), 362
Ansbach and Bayreuth, Margrave of, see Christian Friedrich Karl Alexander
anti-Semitism: decline in, 629
Voltaire’s, 149–50, 629–30; see also Jews
Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, Prince (1714–76), 430
Antony, Mark (Marcus Antonius; 83?–30 B.C.), 31, 238
Antwerp, 342, 361, 364
Anville, Madame d’, 118
Anzin firm episode, French Revolution, 932
Aphorisms for Women, by a Shepherdess of the North (Nordenflycht), 660
Apology for Suicide (Frederick the Great), 54
Apraksin, Count Stepan (1702–60), 48–49, 432
Aquinas, Saint Thomas (1225–74), 241
Arabia, 411–12, 415
Aranda, Pedro Abarca, Conde de (1718–99), 274, 280–81, 292, 848
background of, 282
conflict with Jesuits, 283–84
fall of, 286
as father of Spanish Enlightenment, 287
foreign policy of, 290
political diplomacy of, 282
reforms of, 142, 286
Arblay, Gen. Alexandre d’ (d. 1818), 791
Arcadian Academy, 256
Arcangeli, Francesco (d. 1768), 330
Archimedes (287?–212 B.C.), 672
Archinto, Alberico, Cardinal (1698–1758), 326, 328
architecture: baroque, 111
classical, 110, 747
in England, 747–48
in France, 109–11, 910
in Germany, 524–25
Industrial Revolution and, 682
in Italy, 247
in Russia, 426, 432, 467–69
in Scotland, 765
in Spain, 297
in Turkey, 414
Archytas of Tarentum (fl. 400–365 B.C.), 555
Arco, Count, 344
Ardinghello (Heinse), 522
Argens, Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d’ (1704–71), 59
Argenson, Marc-Pierre de Voyer, Comte d’ (1696–1764), 67
Argenson, Marc-René d’, see Voyer, Marquis de
Argenson, René-Louis de Voyer, Marquis d’ (1694–1757), 81
dismissal of, 85
on French nobility, 930
predicts American Revolution, 708
on revolutionary sentiment of Pa
risians, 91, 92
Argental, Charles-Augustin de Ferriol, Comte d’ (1700–88), 875
Argentau, Mercy d’, see Mercy d’ Argentau
aristocracy, see nobility
Aristomène (Marmontel), 105
Aristophanes (450?–385 B.C.), 136, 241
Aristotelian unities, 296
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), 163, 294, 511
Arkwright, Sir Richard (1732–92), 673
Arlechino (comic character), 232, 241
Armed Neutrality, Declaration of (1780), 713; –, League of, 457, 648, 713
Armenia, 418
Armentières, Marquis d’ (fl. 1758), 161
Armide (Gluck), 372
Arminians, 646
Armour, Jean, see Burns, Jean
Armstead, Elizabeth (b. 1750), 726
Arnaud, Abbé François (1721–84), 371, 372–73
Arnim, Bettina von, nee Brentano (1785–1859), 562, 611
Arnim, Henrietta von (fl. 1787), 575
Arnould, Sophie (1744–1802), 113, 370–71, 373, 883, 920
Arran, James Hamilton, 2d Earl of (1517?–75), 779
Artamène, ou Le Grand Cyrus (Scudéry), 169
Artarin, publisher, 402
Artois, 928
Artois, Comte d’, see Charles X
Ascanio in Alba (Mozart), 387
Ashkenazi Jews, 630
Ashraf, Shah of Persia (r. 1725–30), 418
Asia Minor, 411
see also Islam
Assemblée Nationale, see National Assembly, French
Assembly of Notables (1787), 75, 944–45
Astarabad, 419
Astrée, L ’ (Urfé), 169
atheism, 734
philosophes and, 183
Rousseau denounces, 183
Athens, ancient, 21, 579, 690
atmospheric engine, 674
Attempt by J. W. Goethe, Privy Councilor of the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, to Explain the Metamorphosis of Plants, An (Goethe), 617
Auch eine Philosophie der Geschichte (Herder), 569
Auchinleck, Laird of, see Boswell, Alexander
Audenaarde, 361
Aufklärung (German Enlightenment), sources of, 507–8
Aufklärungspartei, 351
Augeard, Jacques-Matthieu (1731–1805), 850
Augereau, Maréchal Pierre-François-Charles (1757–1816), Duc de Castiglione, 606
Augsburg, Diet of, 176
Augusta of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Princess of Wales (d. 1772), 687
Augustine, Saint (354–430), 4
Augustinian friars, 285, 294
Augustus (Caius Octavius), Emperor of Rome (r. 27 B.C.-A.D. 14), 31, 252
Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland (r. 1697–1704, 1709–33), Elector of Saxony as Frederick Augustus I (r. 1694–1733), 475–76, 633
Augustus III, King of Poland (r. 1734–63), Elector of Saxony as Frederick Augustus II (r. 1733–63), 502
in alliance against Frederick II, 43, 45, 46, 48, 502
Frederick invades Saxon kingdom of, 44–45, 249, 502