by Will Durant
Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent de (1741–1801), 869, 936, 955
law: Burke’s early views on, 690
Vico’s theory of, 252; see also legal reform
Law, John (1671–1729), financier, 630
Law, William (1686–1761), 796
Laws (Plato), 177
La-Yesharim Tehilla (Luzzatto), 637
Lazienski Palace, 479
League of Princes, German (1785), 362–63
Lebel, valet of Louis XVI (1768), 86
Lebèque, Agnès, 918
Lebon, Philippe (1767–1804), 676
Le Brun, Charles (1619–90), 913
Lebrun, J.-B.-Pierre (1748–1813), 913
Le Clerc, Jean (1657–1736), 253
Lecouvreur, Adrienne (1692–1730), 102
Lee, Arthur (1740–92), 869
Leeds, 681
legal reform: in Austria, 344
in England, 736–38
in Prussia, 500
in Russia, 450–52
in Sweden, 657
Leghorn, 220, 228
Légion d’ Honneur, Palais de la, 910
Legislative Assembly, French, see National Assembly, French
Legros (Le Gros), Joseph (1730–93), 370–71, 392
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von (1646–1716), 13, 294, 531–32, 534, 536, 637
Leibowicz, Jankiew (Jacob Frank; 1726–91), 636
Leiden, 361
University of, 647
Leiden des jungen Werther, Die (Goethe), see Sorrows of Young Werther
Leilan, battle of (1733), 419
Leipzig;
authors in, 506
orchestra in, 525
University of, 557
Leipziger Liederbuch, Das, 557
Leipziger Zeitung, Die, 506
Leitmeritz, Frederick II at, 47
Lekain (Cain), Henri-Louis (1728–78), 101–2, 136, 920
Lemaître, Jules (1853–1914), 5*
Le Maître, Nicoloz (fl. 1729), 10
Lemberg, university at, 360
Lemercier de la Rivière (1720–94), 74–75, 657
Lemoyne, Jean-Baptiste (1704–78), 107
Lengefeld, Caroline von, 594
Lengefeld, Charlotte von (1766–1826), 594
Lenin, Nikolai (1870–1924), 891
Lenngren, Anna Maria, nee Malmstedt (1754–1817), 662
Lenngren, Karl Peter, 661
Lennox, Caroline, Lady Holland, 693
Lennox, John Stuart, 3d Earl of (d. 1526), 779
“Lenore” (Bürger), 519–20
Lenz, Jakob Michael Reinhold (1751–92), 503, 521, 562, 581, 612
Leo, Leonardo (1694–1744), 240, 254–55, 333
Leo XIII (Gioacchino Vincenzo Pecci), Pope (r. 1878–1903), 247
Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1790–92), Grand Duke of Tuscany as Leopold I (r. 1765–90): as Grand Duke, 76, 310, 313–14, 346, 354, 363, 846
as Holy Roman Emperor, 314, 334, 365, 406, 407, 664
Leopold, Carl Gustaf af (1756–1829), 661
Leopold of Brunswick, Prince, 513
Lepanto, battle of (1571), 229
Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, Louis-Michel (1760–93), 913
Le Roy, Julien-David (1724–1803), 110
Lespinasse, Julie de (1732–76), 118, 120, 122–31, 656, 858, 894
d’ Alembert and, 122–28, 130, 892
death of, 130–31
description of, 127
Mme. du Deffand and, 122–23
early life of, 122
on Gluck’s Orfeo, 909
illness of, 125–26
letters to Guibert, 128–30, 131*;
love for Guibert, 128–30
love for Mora, 127–28
popularity of, 123, 125
salon of, 126–27, 906
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim (1729–81), 331, 507–8
557, 567–68, 578, 628, 641, 691
aesthetic theories of, 510–11
appearance and personality of, 512
conflicts with theologians, 513–16
criticism of Goethe, 627
death of, 640
early life and education of, 508–9
early literary activities of, 508–9
Eva König and, 512–13
as first German professional writer, 506
as Freemason, 507
friendship with Elise Reimarus, 512
Goethe and, 563–64
influence of, 517, 520
influences on, 510
in Italy, 513
later years and death of, 517
liberating influence on literature, 511
as librarian of Prince of Brunswick, 512–13
as literary critic, 506
marriage and death of wife, 513
Moses Mendelssohn and, 509, 515, 637–38, 640
National Theater and, 511
opposition to aristocratic privilege, 513
philosophical views of, 516
plays of, 509–11, 513–15
on Prussian despotism, 530
publishes Reimarus manuscript, 513
on truth, 512
views on religion, 515–16
Voltaire and, 509, 512
writes Laokoon, 510
writes Nathan the Wise, 514–15
Leszczinska, Marie, see Marie Leszczinska
Leszczyński, Stanislas, see Stanislas I
Letter to a Member of the National Assembly (Burke), 724
Letter to Christophe Beaumont (Rousseau), 195, 197
Letter to Dr. J.-J. Pansophe (Rousseau), 212
Lettere filosofiche (Gentile), 219
Letters from the Mountain (Rousseau), see Lettres écrites de la montagne
Letters of an Anonymous Writer to the President of the Diet (Kollontaj), 486
Letters on a Regicide Peace (Burke), 725
Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Mankind (Schiller), 551
Letters on the Antiquity of Herculaneum (Winckelmann), 328
Letters to and from the Late Samuel Johnson (Thrale), 840
“Letters to Eliza” (Sterne), 790
Letters to His Son (Chesterfield), 283
Lettre à M. d’ Alembert sur les spectacles (Rousseau), 162–64
Lettre sur la musique française (Rousseau), 372
“Lettre sur la Providence” (Rousseau), 154–55
lettres de cachet, 850, 948, 950
Lettres de cachet (Mirabeau fils), 953
Lettres écrites de la campagne (Tronchin), 197
Lettres écrites de la montagne (Rousseau), 184, 188, 197, 199, 205
Lettres provinciales (Pascal), 139, 514
Lettres sur la danse et les ballets (Noverre), 100
Lettres sur La Nouvelle Héloïse (Voltaire), 170
Leuthen, battle of (1757), 51–52
Levasseur, Thérèse (b. 1722), 17–18, 152, 156–57, 161, 178
Boswell and, 202–4, 783
children sent to foundling asylum, 18, 24, 201
in England, 210–11, 214
Rousseau’s final years with in France, 881–83, 886–87
in Switzerland, 192, 202–7 passim;
Voltaire on, 200
Levellers, 80
Levett, Robert (1705–82), 823
Levetzow, Amalie von, 614
Levetzow, Ulrike von (1804–99), 614
Leviathan (Hobbes), 172
Levitsky, Dmitri (1735–1822), 466–67
Lezioni di commercio (Genovesi), 250
L’ Hôpital, Michel de (1507–73), 865
Liaisons dangereuses, Les (Laclos), 903, 914
liberum veto of Polish Diet, 473, 476–77, 480–81, 484, 488, 885
libraries: in France, 914
in Italy, 219–20
in German states, 506
Libya, 411
Lichnowsky, Prince Karl von (fl. 1789), 405
Lidner, Bengt (1758–93), 661–62
Liechtenstein, Joseph Wenzel, Prince of (b. 1696–d. 1772), 38
lieder
, 525
Liège, 342
Liegnitz, battle of (1760), 60
Life and Letters of Gray (Mason), 841
Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, The (Sterne), 787–89
Life of Johnson (Hawkins), 282
Life of Richard Savage, The (Johnson), 820
Life of Samuel Johnson, The (Boswell), 753 840–41
Life of Swift (Sheridan), 695
Life of Voltaire (Goldsmith), 814
Ligne, Prince Charles-Joseph de (1735–1814), 101, 133, 342, 365, 459–60, 883
on Catherine II, 11, 461
description of Voltaire, 134
of St. Petersburg, 469
on Voltaire, 135
Liguori, St. Alfonso de’ (1696–1787), 225
Lillo, George (1693–1739), 509
Lima, Ignez Elena de, 261
Limburg, 342
Limoges, Turgot’s reforms in, 79–80
Linguet, Simon-Nicolas-Henri (1736–94), 80, 82
French Revolution and, 938, 940
Linley, Thomas (1732–95), 695
Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linné; 1707–78, 206, 565, 658
Linz, woolen mills in, 344
Lionhard und Gertrude (Pestalozzi), 644
Lippe, Count Wilhelm zu, 568
Lisbon, 259, 260, 267, 270
earthquake of, 261, 263, 533
Lister, Thomas, 752
lit de juseice, 946
Literary Magazine, The, 786
literature: in Austria, 345–46
in Denmark, 649–52
in England, 518, 786–840
in France, 104–6, 914–26, (see also Rousseau; Voltaire);
in Germany, 507, 509–22, 552–628
in Holland, 647
in Italy, 220, 239–44, 335–40
of Jews, 636–37
in Persia, 421
in Poland, 485–86
in Portugal, 260, 269–70
Rousseau’s influence on, 3–4, 889
in Russia, 889
in Scotland, 767–68, 772–85, 841–42
in Spain, 295–96
in Sweden, 659–62
in United States, 889
Lithuania, 492
Litta, Conte Cavaliere Agostino (fl. 1754), 527
Little Dorrit (Dickens), 738
Little Theatre, 740
Liverpool: growth of, 681
as port city, 669
slave market in, 732
theater in, 740
Lives of Eminent Persons (Johnson), 819
Lives of the Poets, The (Johnson), 820, 830, 836–37
Livonia, 39, 422, 653, 663
Lloyd’s Evening News, 212
Lobkowitz, Prince Ferdinand von, 367
Lobositz, battle of (1756), 45
Lobstein, Dr. (fl. 1770), 568
Locandera, La (Goldoni), 242
Locatelli, Pietro (1695–1764), 228
Locke, John (1632–1704), 171–72, 177, 179–80, 250, 280, 294–95, 427, 485, 487, 531, 637, 725, 891
Loménie de Brienne, Étienne-Charles (1724–94), 126, 901, 945–48
Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilievich (1711–65), 427
London: administration of city, 744
appearance of, 743–44
brothels in, 744
commerce in, 745
complexity of, 745
Gordon Riots in (1780), 735–36
Jews in, 635
music in, 368
population of, 745
as port city, 669
prostitution in, 744–45
revolutionary spirit of, 705
Rousseau’s flight to, 209–10
slums in, 745
theater in, 740
voting population in, 685
London (Johnson), 819
London Chronicle, The (periodical), 783
London Journal (Boswell), 778*, 780
London Merchant, The (Lillo), 509
London Packet, 817
London Symphonies Nos. 93–104 (Haydn), 378, 381
Longhi, Alessandro (1733–1813), 331
Longhi, Pietro (1702–85), 236, 331
looms, power, 673
Lords, House of, see House of Lords
Lorrain, Claude (Claude Gellée; 1600–82), 327, 751.
Lorraine, 928
Losenko, Anton Pavlovich (1737–73), 466–67
Lotti, Antonio (1667?–1740), 232–33
Louis, Dauphin of France, see Louis de France, Dauphin
Louis, Victor (1731–1800), 101
Louis I King of Spain, see Luis I
Louis XIV, King of France (r. 1643–1715), 95, 273, 331
bourgeoisie and, 934
Spain and, 293
Louis XV, King of France (r. 1715–74), 84–96, 116, 235, 278, 664, 911
abolishes tolls, 76
assassination attempt against, 67, 91
Austrian alliance and, 40–42, 45, 347, 846
Beaumarchais and, 920–22
Choiseul and, 53, 56, 88–89, 94, 656
conflict with Paris Parlement, 90–95
death of, 95–96, 352, 454, 848, 904
defense of d’ Aiguillon, 93
on execution of Malagrida, 267
extravagance of, 84
Frederick II and, 40–41
grief for Mme. de Pompadour’s death, 69
household expenditures of, 84
immorality of, 85–86, 344, 429
invites Rousseau for audience, 25
Jansenists and, 85
Louis XVI and, 845–47
Mozart programs for, 384
personality of, 85
popular hatred of, 84–85, 96
Protestants and, 901
reign of, 67–96
religiosity of, 67
Seven Years’
War and, 45, 53, 56–57
Voltaire and, 88, 137
Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste), King of France (r. 1774–92), 353, 802, 845–72
aids parish priests, 901
American Revolution and, 870
appeals to people (1788), 948
appearance of, 845, 856
authority of, 850
Beaumarchais’ services for, 922
becomes father, 855
bondholders and, 937
Brienne ministry and, 945–48
Calonne ministry and, 943–45
charity of, 904–5
conflicts with parlements (1787–88), 946–48
conflicts with States-General (1789), 958–61
democratic attitudes of, 905
Diamond Necklace Affair and, 942
difficulty in consummating marriage, 847–48, 853–54
diplomatic considerations in marriage, 846
early liberalism of, 867
execution of, 469, 725, 726, 857, 895
extravagance of, 944
flight to Varennes, 896
frees royal serfs, 928
French Revolution and, 896, 900–63
passim
Gustavus III’s aid to, 664
issues edict of religious toleration (1787), 902
Joseph II and, 353–54, 854, 856
kindness of, 851–52, 856–57
Louis XV and, 845, 847
love for crafts, 857
love of masses for, 899
Marie Antoinette and, 436, 847, 851–52
Maurepas’ ministry and, 858
Necker’s first ministry and, 867
Necker’s second ministry and, 948
personality of, 845–46, 856
popularity of, 857
Protestants and, 902
refuses to have priest teach Dauphin, 901
religiosity of, 857
second dismissal of Necker, 961
simplicity of, 904
summons States-General (1788), 948
trial before Convention, 895
Turgot’s ministry and, 859–60, 863–65
Voltaire and, 873, 875, 879
weaknesses of wi
ll, 856
wedding of, 244
Louis XVII (Louis-Charles de France; b. 1785), titular King of France (1793–95), 941
Louis XVIII (Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, Comte de Provence), King of France (r. 1814–15, 1815–1824), 845
Louis-Auguste, Duc de Berry, see Louis XVI
Louis-Charles de France (b. 1785), Dauphin, see Louis XVII
Louis de France (1661–1711), “Le Grand Dauphin,” son of Louis XIV, 276
Louis de France (1729–65), Dauphin, son of Louis XV, 68, 109, 845, 898–99
Louis-Joseph, Duc de Bourgogne, see Bourgogne, Duc de
Louis-Joseph-Xavier de France (1781–89), Dauphin, son of Louis XVI, 855, 961
Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, Comte de Provence, see Louis XVIII
Louisa Ulrika (1720–82), Queen of Adolphus Frederick of Sweden, 34, 655, 658
Louisbourg, British siege of, 57
Louise, Queen of Prussia, see Luise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Louise-Élisabeth de France, Duchess of Felipe of Parma, 311
Louise-Marie de France (1737–87), 95
Louisiana, Spain acquires, 62
Louvain, 342, 361, 364
Louvain, University of, 360, 362
Louveciennes, Château of, 87
Louviers, factories in, 932
Love of the Three Oranges, The (Prokofiev), 243*
Löwenwolde (lover of Anna Ivanovna), 429
Lowther, Sir James (1736–1802), 697
Loyola, St. Ignatius of (1491–1556), 267, 283
Lubomirska, Elizabeth, 479
Lucca, 220, 310
Lucio Silla (Mozart), 388
Lucretius (96?-55 B.C.), 251, 486, 532, 691
Ludwig, of Württemberg, Prince (fl. 1762), 489
Ludwig Ernst of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Regent of Holland (r. 1759–66), 648
Ludwigsburg, 523
Luis I, King of Spain (r. 1724), 283
Luise (Voss), 519, 601
Luise of Hesse-Darmstadt, Duchess of Karl August of Saxe-Weimar, 552
Luise (Louise) of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1776–1810), Queen of Frederick William III of Prussia, 523
Lully, Jean-Baptiste (1632–87), 372
Lumley, Elizabeth, see Sterne, Elizabeth
Lunar Society, 734
Lund, University of, 659
Lutf ‘Ali Beg Adar (1711–80, 421
Luther, Martin (1483–1546), 360, 561, 620, 628, 881
Luttrell, Henry (1743–1821), 704
Luxembourg, 342
Luxembourg, Charles-François de Montmorency, Maréchal Duc de (1702–64), 97, 125, 201
Rousseau and, 161–62, 189, 898
Luxembourg, Madeleine-Angélique, Maréchale Duchesse de, earlier Duchesse de Boufflers (1707–87), 118, 161–62, 907, 929
Luxeuil, Abbey of, 928
Luzán y Martínez, José (1710–85), 300
Luze, Jean-Jacques de (fl. 1765), 209–10
Luzzatto, Moses Chayim (1707–47), 636–37
Lycurgus (7th cent. B.C.), 253
Lyons: industry in, 933
poverty in, 933
proletariat in, 933