9. J. Park, P. Konana, B. Gu, A. Kumar, and R. Raghunathan, “Confirmation Bias, Overconfidence, and Investment Performance: Evidence from Stock Message Boards,” McCombs Research Paper, Series No. IROM-07–10 (2010).
10. E.J. Carter and K.A. Pelphrey, “Friend or Foe? Brain Systems Involved in the Perception of Dynamic Signals of Menacing and Friendly Social Approaches,” Social Neuroscience 3, no. 2 (2008): 151–163.
11. T. Masuda, P.C. Ellsworth, B. Mesquita, J. Leu, S. Tanida, and E. van de Veerdonk, “Placing the Face in Context: Cultural Differences in the Perception of Facial Emotion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94, no. 3 (2008): 365–381.
12. A. Tanaka, A. Koizumi, H. Imai, S. Hiramatsu, E. Hiramoto, and B. de Gelder, “I Feel Your Voice: Cultural Differences in the Multisensory Perception of Emotion,” Psychological Science 21, no. 9 (2010): 1259–1262.
13. S. Mineyama, A. Tsutsumi, S. Takao, K. Nishiuchi, and N. Kawakami, “Supervisors’ Attitudes and Skills for Active Listening with Regard to Working Conditions and Psychological Stress Reactions Among Subordinate Workers,” Journal of Occupational Health 49, no. 2 (2007): 81–87. In particular, the researchers were looking at Listening Attitude and Listening Skill, both of which constitute a central part of the Active Listening concept.
14. K. Izuma, D.N. Saito, and N. Sadoto, “Processing of Social and Monetary Rewards in the Human Striatum,” Neuron 58, no. 2 (2008): 284–294.
15. M. Sliter, S. Withrow, and S.M. Jex, “It Happened, or You Thought It Happened? Examining the Perception of Workplace Incivility Based on Personality Characteristics,” International Journal of Stress Management 22, no. 1 (2015): 24–45; citation, page 25.
16. J.T. Cacioppo and L.C. Hawkley, “Perceived Social Isolation and Cognition,” Trends in Cognitive Science 13, no. 10 (2009): 447–454.
17. R.C.K. Chan, D. Shum, T. Toulopoulou, and E.Y.H. Chen, “Assessment of Executive Functions: Review of Instruments and Identification of Critical Issues,” Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 23, no. 2 (2008): 201–216.
CHAPTER 3: THE IMPACT MODEL
1. Of course, this is assuming it’s within the responsibilities and expectations of your role, you’re clear about legal limitations, and there is insurance in place, where appropriate.
2. Obituary for Paul Lawrence, https://www.hbs.edu/news/releases/Pages/paullawrenceobituary110311.aspx.
3. P.R. Lawrence and N. Nohria, Driven: How Human Nature Shapes Our Choices (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002), 107.
4. N. Nohria, B. Groysberg, and L.E. Lee, “Employee Motivation: A Powerful New Model,” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 7–8 (2008): 78–84.
5. H.G. Enns and D.B. McFarlin, “When Executives Successfully Influence Peers: The Role of Target Assessment, Preparation, and Tactics,” Human Resource Management 44, no. 3 (2005): 257–278.
6. T. Dietz, A. Fitzgerald, and R. Shwom, “Environmental Values,” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30 (2005): 335–372.
7. A. Bardi and S.H. Schwartz, “Values and Behavior: Strength and Structure of Relations,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29, no. 10 (2003): 1207–1220. This weak link may be because while values do motivate our behavior, the researchers note that the relationship between values and behaviors may be partly obscured by norms: we experience norm-related pressures to behave in certain ways.
8. M. Sliter et al., “It Happened, or You Thought It Happened?”
9. S. Vazire and M.R. Mehl, “Knowing Me, Knowing You: The Accuracy and Unique Predictive Validity of Self-Ratings and Other-Ratings of Daily Behavior,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95, no. 5 (2008): 1202–1216. Some research suggests that some biases are so strong that at times people can be even less accurate than close others about their own personality, particularly for evaluative traits. See, for example, a discussion of this in K.L. Bollich, K.H. Rogers, and S. Vazire, “Knowing More Than We Can Tell: People Are Aware of Their Biased Self-Perceptions,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 41, no. 7 (2015): 918–929.
10. See B. Brown, Daring Greatly: How the Courage to be Vulnerable Transforms the Way We Live, Love, Parent and Lead (New York: Avery, 2012) and Dare to Lead: Brave Work. Tough Conversations. Whole Hearts. (New York: Random House, 2018).
CHAPTER 4: TECHNIQUE
1. J.K. Burgoon, L.K. Guerrero, and V. Manusov, “Nonverbal Signals,” in The SAGE Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, eds. M.L. Knapp and J. Daly (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc., 2011), 239–280.
2. For an excellent resource on this, see A. Cuddy, Presence: Bringing Your Boldest Self to Your Biggest Challenges (New York: Back Bay Books, 2015).
3. S. Bonaccio, J. O’Reilly, S.L. O’Sullivan, and F. Chiocchio, “Nonverbal Behavior and Communication in the Workplace: A Review and an Agenda for Research,” Journal of Management 42, no. 5 (2016): 1044–1074. This is a useful review of the nonverbal behavior literature, including of workplace studies. The authors’ discussion of the relationship between nonverbal and verbal communication is taken from V.A. Richmond and J.C. McCroskey, Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relations, 5th ed. (Boston: Pearson, 2004).
4. C.S. Areni and J.R. Sparks, “Language Power and Persuasion,” Psychology & Marketing 22, no. 6 (2005): 507–525.
5. J.R. Sparks, and C.S. Areni, “Style versus Substance: Multiple Roles of Language Power in Persuasion,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 38, no. 1 (2008): 37–60.
6. A. Shapira, “Breathing Is the Key to Persuasive Public Speaking,” Harvard Business Review, June 30, 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/06/breathing-is-the-key-to-persuasive-public-speaking.
7. J. Cesario and E.T. Higgins, “Making Message Recipients ‘Feel Right’: How Nonverbal Cues Can Increase Persuasion,” Psychological Science 19, no. 5 (2008): 415–420.
8. Z. Semnani-Azad and W.L. Adair, “Watch Your Tone . . . Relational Paralinguistic Messages in Negotiation: The Case of East and West,” International Studies of Management and Organization 43, no. 4 (2013): 64–89.
9. W.J. Mayhew, C.A. Parsons, and M. Venkatachalam, “Voice Pitch and the Labor Market Success of Male Chief Executive Officers,” Evolution and Human Behavior 34, no. 4 (2013): 243–248.
10. C.A. Klofstad, R.C. Anderson, and S. Peters, “Sounds Like a Winner: Voice Pitch Influences Perception of Leadership Capacity in Both Men and Women,” Proceedings: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1738 (2012): 2698–2704.
11. C.A. Klofstad, “Candidate Voice Pitch Influences Election Outcomes,” Political Psychology 37, no. 5 (2016): 725–738.
12. N. Kock, “Media Naturalness and Compensatory Encoding: The Burden of Electronic Media Obstacles Is on Senders,” Decision Support Systems 44, no. 1 (2007): 175–187. The research findings were regarding perceived cognitive effort, perceived communication ambiguity, and perceived compensatory encoding effort.
CHAPTER 5: INSPIRING PEOPLE LIVE INSPIRED
1. A.D. Boss and H.P. Sims Jr., “Everyone Fails! Using Emotion Regulation and Self-Leadership for Recovery,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 23, no. 2 (2008): 135–150.
2. Adapted from the definition of leadership offered by G. Yukl in Leadership in Organizations, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005).
3. M.R. Furtner, U. Baldegger, and J.F. Rauthmann, “Leading Yourself and Leading Others: Linking Self-Leadership to Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership,” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 22, no. 4 (2013): 436–449.
4. C.P. Neck and C.C. Manz, Mastering Self-Leadership: Empowering Yourself for Personal Excellence, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2012).
5. Definitions adapted from M.R. Furtner et al., “Leading Yourself and Leading Others,” 437.
6. U. Konradt, P. Andreßen, and T. Ellwart, “Self-Leadership in Organizational Teams: A Multilevel Analysis of Moderators and Mediators,” European Journ
al of Work and Organizational Psychology 18, no. 3 (2009): 322–346.
7. S. Amundsen and Ø.L. Martinsen, “Linking Empowering Leadership to Job Satisfaction, Work Effort and Creativity: The Role of Self-Leadership and Psychological Empowerment,” Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies 22, no. 3 (2015): 304–323.
8. M.R. Furtner, J.F. Rauthmann, and P. Sachse, “The Socioemotionally Intelligent Self-Leader: Examining Relations Between Self-Leadership and Socioemotional Intelligence,” Social Behavior and Personality 38, no. 9 (2010): 1191–1196.
9. B.J. Zimmerman, “Attaining Self-Regulation: A Social Cognitive Perspective,” in Handbook of Self-Regulation, eds. M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich, and M. Zeidner (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2000), 13–39.
10. J.D. Creswell, J.K. Bursley, and A.B. Satpute, “Neural Reactivation Links Unconscious Thought to Decision-Making Performance,” Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience 8, no. 8 (2013): 863–869.
11. M. Bar-Eli, O.H. Azar, I. Ritov, Y. Keidar-Levin, and G. Schein, “Action Bias among Elite Soccer Goalkeepers: The Case of Penalty Kicks,” Journal of Economic Psychology 28, no. 5 (2007): 606–621.
12. S.H. Harrison, D.M. Sluss, and B.E. Ashforth, “Curiosity Adapted the Cat: The Role of Trait Curiosity in Newcomer Adaptation,” Journal of Applied Psychology 96, no. 1 (2011): 211–220. The researchers here looked at “trait curiosity”—individuals with strong dispositional tendencies with an attraction to a broad array of novel stimuli. People with greater trait curiosity experience the state of curiosity more often, more intensely, and for longer than people who are less trait curious. While some people are higher on this dispositional tendency, all of us are able to choose curiosity as a mind-set and engage in corresponding regular behaviors, thereby accessing benefits associated with curiosity.
13. S.R. Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989).
14. J.M. Jachimowicz, J.J. Lee, B.R. Staats, J.I. Menges, and F. Gino, “Commuting as Role Transitions: How Trait Self-Control and Work-Related Prospection Offset Negative Effects of Lengthy Commutes,” Harvard Business School Working Paper, no. 16–077 (revised January 2017).
15. G. Di Stefano, F. Gino, G.P. Pisano, and B.R. Staats, “Making Experience Count: The Role of Reflection in Individual Learning,” Harvard Business School Working Paper, no. 14–093 (2014; revised June 2016).
16. R.D. Cotton, Y. Shen, and R. Livne-Tarandach, “On Becoming Extraordinary: The Content and Structure of the Developmental Networks of Major League Baseball Hall of Famers,” Academy of Management Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 15–46.
17. P.B. Baltes and J. Smith, “The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 3, no. 1 (2008): 56–64.
18. A.C. Huynh, H. Oakes, G.R. Shay, and I. McGregor, “Corrigendum: The Wisdom in Virtue: Pursuit of Virtue Predicts Wise Reasoning About Personal Conflicts,” Psychological Science 28, no. 12 (2017): 1848–1856.
19. S. Etezadi and D. Pushkar, “Why Are Wise People Happier? An Explanatory Model of Wisdom and Emotional Well-Being in Older Adults,” Journal of Happiness Studies 14, no. 3 (2013): 929–950.
20. V.P. Clayton and J.E. Birren, “The Development of Wisdom Across the Life-Span: A Reexamination of an Ancient Topic,” in Life-Span Development and Behavior, vol. 3, eds. P.B. Baltes and O.G. Brim (New York: Academic Press, 1980).
21. A. Bergsma and M. Ardelt, “Self-Reported Wisdom and Happiness: An Empirical Investigation,” Journal of Happiness Studies 13, no. 3 (2012): 481–499.
22. U. Kunzmann and P.B. Baltes, “Wisdom-Related Knowledge: Affective, Motivational, and Interpersonal Correlates,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29, no. 9 (2003): 1104–1119.
23. I. Nonaka and H. Takeuchi, “The Wise Leader,” Harvard Business Review 89, no. 5 (2011): 58–67.
24. T.W. Meeks and D.V. Jeste, “Neurobiology of Wisdom: A Literature Overview,” Archives of General Psychiatry 66, no. 4 (2009): 355–365.
25. S. Etezadi et al., “Why Are Wise People Happier?”
26. I. Nonaka et al., “The Wise Leader.”
27. A.C. Huynh et al., “Corrigendum: The Wisdom in Virtue.”
28. P.A. Jennings, C.M. Aldwin, M. R. Levenson, A. Spiro III, and D.K. Mroczek, “Combat Exposure, Perceived Benefits of Military Service, and Wisdom in Later Life: Findings from the Normative Aging Study,” Research on Aging 28, no. 1 (2006): 115–134. Participants in the study were all male and predominantly European/American. The researchers note the need for further research, particularly with women and people of other ethnicities, to generalize the findings.
CHAPTER 6: GRAVITAS IN THE DARK
1. E. Kross, M.G. Berman, W. Mischel, E.E. Smith, and T.D. Wager, “Social Rejection Shares Somatosensory Representations with Physical Pain,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108, no. 15 (2011): 6270–6275.
2. C.C. Manz and C.P. Neck, “Inner Leadership: Creating Productive Thought Patterns,” The Executive 5, no. 3 (1991): 87–95.
3. C. Fields, “Why Do We Talk to Ourselves?” Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence 14, no. 4 (2002): 255–272.
4. S.G. Rogelberg et al., “The Executive Mind: Leader Self-Talk, Effectiveness and Strain,” Journal of Managerial Psychology 28, no. 2 (2013): 183–201.
5. D. Tod, J. Hardy, and E. Oliver, “Effects of Self-Talk: A Systematic Review,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 33, no. 5 (2011): 666–687.
6. S.G. Rogelberg et al., “The Executive Mind.”
7. S.G. Rogelberg et al., “The Executive Mind.”
8. C.P. Neck and C.C. Manz, “Thought Self-Leadership: The Impact of Mental Strategies Training on Employee Cognition, Behavior, and Affect,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 17, no. 5 (1996): 445–67.
9. S.G. Rogelberg et al., “The Executive Mind.”
10. A. Hatzigeorgiadis and S.J.H. Biddle, “Negative Self-Talk During Sport Performance: Relationships with Pre-Competition Anxiety and Goal-Performance Discrepancies,” Journal of Sport Behavior 31, no. 3 (2008): 237–253.
11. D. Tod et al., “Effects of Self-Talk.”
12. S. David and C. Congleton, “Emotional Agility: How Effective Leaders Manage Their Negative Thoughts and Feelings,” Harvard Business Review 91, no. 11 (2013): 125–128.
13. D.S. Yeager and C.S. Dweck, “Mindsets That Promote Resilience: When Students Believe That Personal Characteristics Can Be Developed,” Educational Psychologist 47, no. 4 (2012): 302–314.
14. C. Dweck, Mindset: Changing the Way You Think to Fulfil Your Potential (New York: Random House, 2006).
15. R.A. Emmons and M.E. McCullough, “Counting Blessings versus Burdens: An Experimental Investigation of Gratitude and Subjective Well-Being in Daily Life,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84, no. 2 (2003): 377–389.
16. N.A.S. Farb, Z.V. Segal, H. Mayberg, J. Bean, D. McKeon, Z. Fatima, and A.K. Anderson, “Attending to the Present: Mindfulness Meditation Reveals Distinct Neural Modes of Self-Reference,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2, no. 4 (2007): 313–122.
17. A useful resource on the benefits of such attention training and the practices of mindfulness is Oxford University emeritus professor Mark Williams and Dr. Danny Penman’s Mindfulness: A Practical Guide to Finding Peace in a Frantic World (London: Piatkus, 2011).
18. McLaggan Smith Mugs, Scotland, www.msmugs.com.
19. De-Stress Kit by Neom Organics London, www.neomorganics.com.
20. The discussion here of anxiety relates to managing temporary states of feeling anxious, related to particular contexts or situations. If you are experiencing extreme or sustained anxiety, I encourage you to speak to your medical professional or mental health practitioner.
21. S.G. Hofmann, S. Heering, A.T. Sawyer, and A. Asnaani, “How to Handle Anxiety: T
he Effects of Reappraisal, Acceptance, and Suppression Strategies on Anxious Arousal,” Behavior Research and Therapy 47, no. 5 (2009): 389–394.
22. A. Brooks, “Get Excited: Reappraising Pre-Performance Anxiety as Excitement,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143, no. 3 (2014): 1144–1158.
23. T. Rath and B. Conchie, Strengths Based Leadership: Great Leaders, Teams, and Why People Follow (New York: Gallup Press, 2008).
24. D.T. Kong and V.T. Ho, “A Self-Determination Perspective of Strengths Use at Work: Examining Its Determinant and Performance Implications,” Journal of Positive Psychology 11, no. 1 (2016): 15–25.
25. See www.strengthscope.com.
26. R.E. Boyatzis, M.L. Smith, and N. Blaize, “Developing Sustainable Leaders Through Coaching and Compassion,” Academy of Management Learning and Education 5, no. 1 (2006): 8–24.
27. R.E. Boyatzis et al., “Developing Sustainable Leaders,” 9–12.
28. Definition in R.E. Boyatzis et al., “Developing Sustainable Leaders,” taken from R.E. Boyatzis, Notes from a coaching workshop (Cleveland: Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University, 2003), unpublished paper.
29. R.E. Boyatzis, M.L. Smith, and A.J. Beveridge, “Coaching with Compassion: Inspiring Health, Well-Being and Development in Organizations,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49, no. 2 (2012): 153–178.
30. R.E. Boyatzis et al., “Coaching with Compassion,” 155.
31. R.E. Boyatzis et al., “Coaching with Compassion,” 161–162, 167.
CHAPTER 7: ADAPTING MY STYLE
1. R.E. Kaplan and R.B. Kaiser, “Developing Versatile Leadership,” MIT Sloan Management Review 44, no. 4 (2003): 19–26. In this overview of three research studies, the authors describe strategic leadership as setting long-term direction, thinking broadly about the organization, seeking ways to grow the business, and aligning people with the vision and strategy. They describe operational leadership as focusing on short-term results, getting involved in operational detail, being grounded in the realities of implementing strategy, and using processes to keep people on track. They describe forceful leadership as taking charge, taking stands, having leadership presence, being decisive, setting challenging expectations for people, holding them accountable, making tough calls, and asking probing questions. The authors describe enabling leadership as empowering people, being receptive to where others stand on issues, being responsive to the needs of others, being understanding when others don’t deliver, and sharing the limelight.
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