The Big Nine

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The Big Nine Page 28

by Amy Webb

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  IEEE Standards Association. “The IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems.” https://standards.ieee.org/develop/indconn/ec/autonomous_systems.html.

  Jo, YoungJu, et al. “Quantitative Phase Imaging and Artificial Intelligence: A Review.” Computing Research Repository (2018). doi:abs/1806.03982.

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  Kelly, K. The Inevitable: Understanding the 12 Technological Forces That Will Shape Our Future. New York: Viking, 2016.

  Kirkpatrick, K. “Battling Algorithmic Bias.” Communications of the ACM 59, no. 10 (2016): 16–17. https://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2016/10/207759-battling-algorithmic-bias/abstract.

  Knight, W. “AI Fight Club Could Help Save Us from a Future of Super-Smart Cyberattacks.” MIT Technology Review, July 20, 2017. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608288/ai-fight-club-could-help-save-us-from-afuture-of-supersmart-cyberattacks/.

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  Libicki, R. Cyberspace in Peace and War. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2016.

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  NOTES

  INTRODUCTION: BEFORE IT’S TOO LATE

  1. Paul Mozur, “Beijing Wants AI to Be Made in China by 2030,” New York Times, July 20, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/20/business/china-artificial-intelligence.html.

  2. Tom Simonite, “Ex-Google Executive Opens a School for AI, with China’s Help,” Wired, April 5, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/ex-google-executive-opens-a-school-for-ai-with-chinas-help/.

  3. “Xinhua Headlines: Xi outlines blueprint to develop China’s strength in cyberspace,” Xinhua, April 213, 2018. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-04/21/c_137127374_2.htm.

  4. Stephanie Nebehay, “U.N. says it has credible reports that China holds million Uighurs in secret camps,” Reuters, August 10, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-rights-un/u-n-says-it-has-credible-reports-that-china-holds-million-uighurs-in-secret-camps-idUSKBN1KV1SU.

  5. Simina Mistreanu, “Life Inside China’s Social Credit Laboratory,” Foreign Policy, April 3, 2018. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/04/03/life-inside-chinas-social-credit-laboratory/.

  6. Ibid.

  7. “China Shames Jaywalkers through Facial Recognition,” Phys.org, June 20, 2017, https://phys.org/news/2017-06-china-shames-jaywalkers-facial-recognit
ion.html.

  CHAPTER 1: MIND AND MACHINE: A VERY BRIEF HISTORY OF AI

  1. “The Seikilos Epitaph: The Oldest Song in the World,” Wired, October 29, 2009, https://www.wired.com/2009/10/the-seikilos-epitaph.

  2. “Population Clock: World,” Census.gov, 2018, https://www.census.gov/popclock/world.

  3. Elizabeth King, “Clockwork Prayer: A Sixteenth-Century Mechanical Monk,” Blackbird 1, no. 1 (Spring 2002), https://blackbird.vcu.edu/v1n1/nonfiction/king_e/prayer_introduction.htm.

  4. Thomas Hobbes, De Corpore Politico, or The Elements of Law Moral and Politick.

  5. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Second Meditation §25, 1641, University of Connecticut, http://selfpace.uconn.edu/class/percep/DescartesMeditations.pdf.

  6. René Descartes, Treatise of Man, trans. T. S. Hall (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972).

  7. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, The Monadology, trans. Robert Latta, (1898), https://www.plato-philosophy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/The-Monadology-1714-by-Gottfried-Wilhelm-LEIBNIZ-1646-1716.pdf.

  8. The first known use of the word “computer” is thought to have been in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings, written by Richard Braithwaite in 1613. At that time, computers were people who performed calculations.

  9. “Blaise Pascal,” Biography.com, https://www.biography.com/people/blaise-pascal-9434176.

  10. Leibniz writes in De progressione dyadica: “This [binary] calculus could be implemented by a machine… provided with holes in such a way that they can be opened and closed. They are to be open at those places that correspond to a 1 and remain closed at those that correspond to a 0. Through the opened gates small cubes or marbles are to fall into tracks, through the others nothing. It [the gate array] is to be shifted from column to column as required.”

  11. Leibniz writes: “I thought again about my early plan of a new language or writing-system of reason, which could serve as a communication tool for all different nations.… If we had such a universal tool, we could discuss the problems of the metaphysical or the questions of ethics in the same way as the problems and questions of mathematics or geometry. That was my aim: Every misunderstanding should be nothing more than a miscalculation,… easily corrected by the grammatical laws of that new language. Thus, in the case of a controversial discussion, two philosophers could sit down at a table and just calculating, like two mathematicians, they could say, ‘Let us check it up.’”

  12. “Apes to Androids: Is Man a Machine as La Mettrie Suggests?,” http://www.charliemccarron.com/man_a_machine/.

  13. Luigi Manabrea, Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage (London: Richard and John E. Taylor, 1843).

  14. Desmond MacHale, The Life and Work of George Boole: A Prelude to the Digital Age, New ed. (Cork University Press, 2014).

  15. Logician Martin Davis explains it best in The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing: “Turing knew that an algorithm is typically specified by a list of rules that a person can follow in a precise mechanical manner, like a recipe in a cookbook. He was able to show that such a person could be limited to a few extremely simple basic actions without changing the final outcome of the computation. Then, by proving that no machine performing only those basic actions could determine whether or not a given proposed conclusion follows from given premises… he was able to conclude that no algorithm for the Entscheidungsproblem exists.”

  16. Alan Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59, no. 236 (1950): 433–60.

  17. “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence,” Stanford Computer Science Department’s Formal Reasoning Group, John McCarthy’s home page, links to articles of historical interest, last modified April 3, 1996, http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html.

  18. In their proposal, McCarthy, Minsky, Rochester, and Shannon invited the following list of people to Dartmouth to research artificial intelligence. I have reproduced the original list as it was published in 1955, which includes company names and addresses. Not all were able to attend.

  "Adelson, Marvin

  Hughes Aircraft Company

  Airport Station, Los Angeles, CA

  Ashby, W. R.

  Barnwood House

  Gloucester, England

  Backus, John

  IBM Corporation

  590 Madison Avenue

  New York, NY

  Bernstein, Alex

  IBM Corporation

  590 Madison Avenue

  New York, NY

  Bigelow, J. H.

  Institute for Advanced Studies

  Princeton, NJ

  Elias, Peter

  R. L. E., MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Duda, W. L.

  IBM Research Laboratory

  Poughkeepsie, NY

  Davies, Paul M.

  1317 C. 18th Street

  Los Angeles, CA

  Fano, R. M.

  R. L. E., MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Farley, B. G.

  324 Park Avenue

  Arlington, MA

  Galanter, E. H.

  University of Pennsylvania

  Philadelphia, PA

  Gelernter, Herbert

  IBM Research

  Poughkeepsie, NY

  Glashow, Harvey A.

  1102 Olivia Street

  Ann Arbor, MI

  Goertzal, Herbert

  330 West 11th Street

  New York, NY

  Hagelbarger, D.

  Bell Telephone Laboratories

  Murray Hill, NJ

  Miller, George A.

  Memorial Hall

  Harvard University

  Cambridge, MA

  Harmon, Leon D.

  Bell Telephone Laboratories

  Murray Hill, NJ

  Holland, John H.

  E. R. I.

  University of Michigan

  Ann Arbor, MI

  Holt, Anatol

  7358 Rural Lane

  Philadelphia, PA

  Kautz, William H.

  Stanford Research Institute

  Menlo Park, CA

  Luce, R. D.

  427 West 117th Street

  New York, NY

  MacKay, Donald

  Department of Physics

  University of London

  London, WC2, England

  McCarthy, John

  Dartmouth College

  Hanover, NH

  McCulloch, Warren S.

  R.L.E., MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Melzak, Z. A.

  Mathematics Department

  University of Michigan

  Ann Arbor, MI

  Minsky, M. L.

  112 Newbury Street

  Boston, MA

  More, Trenchard

  Department of Electrical Engineering

  MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Nash, John

  Institute for Advanced Studies

  Princeton, NJ

  Newell, Allen

  Department of Industrial Administration

  Carnegie Institute of Technology

  Pittsburgh, PA

  Robinson, Abraham

  Department of Mathematics

  University of Toronto

  Toronto, Ontario, Canada

  Rochester, Nathaniel

  Engineering Research Laboratory

  IBM Corporation

  Poughkeepsie, NY

  Rogers, Hartley, Jr.

  Department of Mathematics

  MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Rosenblith, Walter

  R.L.E., MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Rothstein, Jerome

  21 East Bergen Place

  Red Bank, NJ

  Sayre, David

  IBM Corporation

  590 Madison Avenue

  New York, NY

  Schorr-Kon, J. J.

  C-380 Lincoln Laboratory, MIT
<
br />   Lexington, MA

  Shapley, L.

  Rand Corporation

  1700 Main Street

  Santa Monica, CA

  Schutzenberger, M. P.

  R.L.E., MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Selfridge, O. G.

  Lincoln Laboratory, MIT

  Lexington, MA

  Shannon, C. E.

  R.L.E., MIT

  Cambridge, MA

  Shapiro, Norman

  Rand Corporation

  1700 Main Street

  Santa Monica, CA

  Simon, Herbert A.

  Department of Industrial Administration

  Carnegie Institute of Technology

  Pittsburgh, PA

  Solomonoff, Raymond J.

  Technical Research Group

  17 Union Square West

  New York, NY

  Steele, J. E., Capt. USAF

  Area B., Box 8698

  Wright-Patterson AFB

  Ohio

  Webster, Frederick

  62 Coolidge Avenue

  Cambridge, MA

  Moore, E. F.

  Bell Telephone Laboratory

  Murray Hill, NJ

  Kemeny, John G.

  Dartmouth College

  Hanover, NH

  19. I’ve compiled a very short list of talented women and people of color who would have added tremendous value to the Dartmouth workshop but were overlooked. This list is not in any way comprehensive. I could have continued for dozens and dozens of pages. It is representative of the smart, capable, creative people who were left out of the proceedings.

  James Andrews, mathematician and professor at Florida State University who specialized in group theory and knot theory.

  Jean Bartik, mathematician and one of the original programmers for the ENIAC computer.

  Albert Turner Bharucha-Reid, mathematician and theorist who made significant contributions in Markov chains, probability theory, and statistics.

  David Blackwell, statistician and mathematician who made significant contributions to game theory, information theory, probability theory, and Bayesian statistics.

  Mamie Phipps Clark, a PhD and social psychologist whose research focused on self-consciousness.

  Thelma Estrin, who pioneered the application of computer systems in neurophysiological and brain research. She was a researcher in the Electroencephalography Department of the Neurological Institute of Columbia Presbyterian at the time of the Dartmouth Summer Research Project.

  Evelyn Boyd Granville, a PhD in mathematics who developed the computer programs used for trajectory analysis in the first US-manned missions to space and the moon.

 

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