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NOTES
INTRODUCTION: BEFORE IT’S TOO LATE
1. Paul Mozur, “Beijing Wants AI to Be Made in China by 2030,” New York Times, July 20, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/20/business/china-artificial-intelligence.html.
2. Tom Simonite, “Ex-Google Executive Opens a School for AI, with China’s Help,” Wired, April 5, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/ex-google-executive-opens-a-school-for-ai-with-chinas-help/.
3. “Xinhua Headlines: Xi outlines blueprint to develop China’s strength in cyberspace,” Xinhua, April 213, 2018. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-04/21/c_137127374_2.htm.
4. Stephanie Nebehay, “U.N. says it has credible reports that China holds million Uighurs in secret camps,” Reuters, August 10, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-rights-un/u-n-says-it-has-credible-reports-that-china-holds-million-uighurs-in-secret-camps-idUSKBN1KV1SU.
5. Simina Mistreanu, “Life Inside China’s Social Credit Laboratory,” Foreign Policy, April 3, 2018. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/04/03/life-inside-chinas-social-credit-laboratory/.
6. Ibid.
7. “China Shames Jaywalkers through Facial Recognition,” Phys.org, June 20, 2017, https://phys.org/news/2017-06-china-shames-jaywalkers-facial-recognit
ion.html.
CHAPTER 1: MIND AND MACHINE: A VERY BRIEF HISTORY OF AI
1. “The Seikilos Epitaph: The Oldest Song in the World,” Wired, October 29, 2009, https://www.wired.com/2009/10/the-seikilos-epitaph.
2. “Population Clock: World,” Census.gov, 2018, https://www.census.gov/popclock/world.
3. Elizabeth King, “Clockwork Prayer: A Sixteenth-Century Mechanical Monk,” Blackbird 1, no. 1 (Spring 2002), https://blackbird.vcu.edu/v1n1/nonfiction/king_e/prayer_introduction.htm.
4. Thomas Hobbes, De Corpore Politico, or The Elements of Law Moral and Politick.
5. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Second Meditation §25, 1641, University of Connecticut, http://selfpace.uconn.edu/class/percep/DescartesMeditations.pdf.
6. René Descartes, Treatise of Man, trans. T. S. Hall (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972).
7. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, The Monadology, trans. Robert Latta, (1898), https://www.plato-philosophy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/The-Monadology-1714-by-Gottfried-Wilhelm-LEIBNIZ-1646-1716.pdf.
8. The first known use of the word “computer” is thought to have been in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings, written by Richard Braithwaite in 1613. At that time, computers were people who performed calculations.
9. “Blaise Pascal,” Biography.com, https://www.biography.com/people/blaise-pascal-9434176.
10. Leibniz writes in De progressione dyadica: “This [binary] calculus could be implemented by a machine… provided with holes in such a way that they can be opened and closed. They are to be open at those places that correspond to a 1 and remain closed at those that correspond to a 0. Through the opened gates small cubes or marbles are to fall into tracks, through the others nothing. It [the gate array] is to be shifted from column to column as required.”
11. Leibniz writes: “I thought again about my early plan of a new language or writing-system of reason, which could serve as a communication tool for all different nations.… If we had such a universal tool, we could discuss the problems of the metaphysical or the questions of ethics in the same way as the problems and questions of mathematics or geometry. That was my aim: Every misunderstanding should be nothing more than a miscalculation,… easily corrected by the grammatical laws of that new language. Thus, in the case of a controversial discussion, two philosophers could sit down at a table and just calculating, like two mathematicians, they could say, ‘Let us check it up.’”
12. “Apes to Androids: Is Man a Machine as La Mettrie Suggests?,” http://www.charliemccarron.com/man_a_machine/.
13. Luigi Manabrea, Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage (London: Richard and John E. Taylor, 1843).
14. Desmond MacHale, The Life and Work of George Boole: A Prelude to the Digital Age, New ed. (Cork University Press, 2014).
15. Logician Martin Davis explains it best in The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing: “Turing knew that an algorithm is typically specified by a list of rules that a person can follow in a precise mechanical manner, like a recipe in a cookbook. He was able to show that such a person could be limited to a few extremely simple basic actions without changing the final outcome of the computation. Then, by proving that no machine performing only those basic actions could determine whether or not a given proposed conclusion follows from given premises… he was able to conclude that no algorithm for the Entscheidungsproblem exists.”
16. Alan Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59, no. 236 (1950): 433–60.
17. “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence,” Stanford Computer Science Department’s Formal Reasoning Group, John McCarthy’s home page, links to articles of historical interest, last modified April 3, 1996, http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html.
18. In their proposal, McCarthy, Minsky, Rochester, and Shannon invited the following list of people to Dartmouth to research artificial intelligence. I have reproduced the original list as it was published in 1955, which includes company names and addresses. Not all were able to attend.
"Adelson, Marvin
Hughes Aircraft Company
Airport Station, Los Angeles, CA
Ashby, W. R.
Barnwood House
Gloucester, England
Backus, John
IBM Corporation
590 Madison Avenue
New York, NY
Bernstein, Alex
IBM Corporation
590 Madison Avenue
New York, NY
Bigelow, J. H.
Institute for Advanced Studies
Princeton, NJ
Elias, Peter
R. L. E., MIT
Cambridge, MA
Duda, W. L.
IBM Research Laboratory
Poughkeepsie, NY
Davies, Paul M.
1317 C. 18th Street
Los Angeles, CA
Fano, R. M.
R. L. E., MIT
Cambridge, MA
Farley, B. G.
324 Park Avenue
Arlington, MA
Galanter, E. H.
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, PA
Gelernter, Herbert
IBM Research
Poughkeepsie, NY
Glashow, Harvey A.
1102 Olivia Street
Ann Arbor, MI
Goertzal, Herbert
330 West 11th Street
New York, NY
Hagelbarger, D.
Bell Telephone Laboratories
Murray Hill, NJ
Miller, George A.
Memorial Hall
Harvard University
Cambridge, MA
Harmon, Leon D.
Bell Telephone Laboratories
Murray Hill, NJ
Holland, John H.
E. R. I.
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI
Holt, Anatol
7358 Rural Lane
Philadelphia, PA
Kautz, William H.
Stanford Research Institute
Menlo Park, CA
Luce, R. D.
427 West 117th Street
New York, NY
MacKay, Donald
Department of Physics
University of London
London, WC2, England
McCarthy, John
Dartmouth College
Hanover, NH
McCulloch, Warren S.
R.L.E., MIT
Cambridge, MA
Melzak, Z. A.
Mathematics Department
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI
Minsky, M. L.
112 Newbury Street
Boston, MA
More, Trenchard
Department of Electrical Engineering
MIT
Cambridge, MA
Nash, John
Institute for Advanced Studies
Princeton, NJ
Newell, Allen
Department of Industrial Administration
Carnegie Institute of Technology
Pittsburgh, PA
Robinson, Abraham
Department of Mathematics
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Rochester, Nathaniel
Engineering Research Laboratory
IBM Corporation
Poughkeepsie, NY
Rogers, Hartley, Jr.
Department of Mathematics
MIT
Cambridge, MA
Rosenblith, Walter
R.L.E., MIT
Cambridge, MA
Rothstein, Jerome
21 East Bergen Place
Red Bank, NJ
Sayre, David
IBM Corporation
590 Madison Avenue
New York, NY
Schorr-Kon, J. J.
C-380 Lincoln Laboratory, MIT
<
br /> Lexington, MA
Shapley, L.
Rand Corporation
1700 Main Street
Santa Monica, CA
Schutzenberger, M. P.
R.L.E., MIT
Cambridge, MA
Selfridge, O. G.
Lincoln Laboratory, MIT
Lexington, MA
Shannon, C. E.
R.L.E., MIT
Cambridge, MA
Shapiro, Norman
Rand Corporation
1700 Main Street
Santa Monica, CA
Simon, Herbert A.
Department of Industrial Administration
Carnegie Institute of Technology
Pittsburgh, PA
Solomonoff, Raymond J.
Technical Research Group
17 Union Square West
New York, NY
Steele, J. E., Capt. USAF
Area B., Box 8698
Wright-Patterson AFB
Ohio
Webster, Frederick
62 Coolidge Avenue
Cambridge, MA
Moore, E. F.
Bell Telephone Laboratory
Murray Hill, NJ
Kemeny, John G.
Dartmouth College
Hanover, NH
19. I’ve compiled a very short list of talented women and people of color who would have added tremendous value to the Dartmouth workshop but were overlooked. This list is not in any way comprehensive. I could have continued for dozens and dozens of pages. It is representative of the smart, capable, creative people who were left out of the proceedings.
James Andrews, mathematician and professor at Florida State University who specialized in group theory and knot theory.
Jean Bartik, mathematician and one of the original programmers for the ENIAC computer.
Albert Turner Bharucha-Reid, mathematician and theorist who made significant contributions in Markov chains, probability theory, and statistics.
David Blackwell, statistician and mathematician who made significant contributions to game theory, information theory, probability theory, and Bayesian statistics.
Mamie Phipps Clark, a PhD and social psychologist whose research focused on self-consciousness.
Thelma Estrin, who pioneered the application of computer systems in neurophysiological and brain research. She was a researcher in the Electroencephalography Department of the Neurological Institute of Columbia Presbyterian at the time of the Dartmouth Summer Research Project.
Evelyn Boyd Granville, a PhD in mathematics who developed the computer programs used for trajectory analysis in the first US-manned missions to space and the moon.