The Irish were banned from passing on Catholicism to their offspring, and their children were often plucked from their homes and shipped as slaves to sugar plantations in the West Indies. Cromwell’s army crushed any dissent, offering forgiveness to those who surrendered but typically executed them nevertheless.
Secret words: Education for Irish Catholics was banned, but clandestine classes, called hedge schools, took place hidden away in the woods.
There was little the Irish could do. The Protestant North politically signed Ireland over to England in 1801, by which time the powerless Catholic Irish were mostly peasant farmers who rented from English landlords running agricultural estates from offices in London. The situation turned more drastic in 1845, when the potato blight struck the peasants’ sole crop. The English didn’t initially fathom the severity of the disease that turned potatoes to black mush overnight; they shrugged off the reports of mass starvation as just another exaggerated Irish fantasy. One lord suggested quite seriously that the starving should drink water flavored with curry powder as a substitute for real food. Many English who owned Irish estates evicted tenants who, given crop failure, couldn’t pay. The blight ruined crops for several years, but 1845 is the year most painfully recalled, for the million Irish who starved to death and for the million who boarded leaky ships, or anything else that might float, and headed across the ocean to the United States, an exodus that led the way for millions more over the next century.
Much funding for the IRA came from the United States, home to many Irish whose families bolted during the Potato Famine.
The callous treatment by the British, who let the Irish Catholics starve (some call it genocide), was worsened by the fact that plenty of food was available in Ireland; Irish Catholics simply had no money to buy it. The British finally shipped in dried corn, but the Irish had no mills to grind it. The Protestants in the North not only survived, some thrived, planting even more bitterness in the hearts of Catholic Irish.
In the 1860s, emigration and death by starvation halved the Catholic Irish population.
The Potato Famine was the turning point. Those who had survived the famine had little love left for the British, whose grasping hands now appeared as poisonous as the ruinous blight. The Irish language, which had been nearly eliminated, was shaken from slumber, and the Gaelic revival was coupled with a nationalist movement demanding independence, known as Home Rule. Starting in the late nineteenth century, the land known for her forty shades of green was often splattered in red from the bloody battles fought over it, and if the Irish had once been underdogs, their rebels were now often aggressors.
Secret societies pushed for Irish independence. Fenians (aka the Irish Republic Brotherhood) and the Invincibles were but two of the underground groups born in the mid-nineteenth century. Fenians kicked up revolts, attacked landlords, and planted the occasional bomb, and the Invincibles murdered British politician Lord Cavendish in 1882—all moves that stirred up anti-Irish sentiment among the English and antirebel sentiment in the Irish, many of whom found the rebels’ actions extreme.
The biggest battles for freedom brewed up in Dublin. During the 1916 Easter Uprising, the Irish seized the Dublin Post Office and declared Ireland independent. After the British army arrived, there was a major showdown and 1,500 died. Initially most Dubliners, who loathed violent methods, shunned the rebels, booing and hissing when the British paraded them to prison. But their hushed execution without trial brought many Irish around to their cause, and the rebels were soon seen as heroes.
The Fenians, and members of other secret independence societies, pulled together as a military force: the Irish Republican Army (IRA), or Óglaigh na hÉireann, which would fight battles in the name of the Republic of Ireland from 1916 to 1921. Many of those fighters put down their weapons after a treaty with the British was signed, but the name IRA continued to be used by fighters who opposed the treaty. After 1969, “IRA” was used by the paramilitary group operating mostly out of Northern Ireland that aimed to free Northern Ireland of British rule.
In 1918, all of Ireland’s elected politicians were from Sinn Féin, the pro-independence political party founded in 1905. Sinn Féin’s first act was to cut ties to the English parliament, set up a legislature in Dublin, give it a Gaelic name—Dáil Éireann—and proclaim Ireland independent. That wasn’t well received in London, and a war ensued for the next three years.
AN EYE FOR AN EYE, A LIFE FOR A LIFE
The year 1920 was nastier than most. The British unleashed paramilitaries—called the Black and Tans—whose job was to make life in Ireland miserable. They succeeded in their goal. In the course of a few weeks:
the IRA killed fourteen undercover detectives
the Black and Tans opened fire at a soccer match, killing twelve
Irish rebels killed eighteen Black and Tans
Black and Tans torched downtown Cork
By 1921, England was ready to deal. The twenty-six counties in the south, about 85 percent of the island, were given Home Rule—essentially becoming a self-governing independent country, though still part of the British Empire. Six counties in Northern Ireland—where the Protestant majority lived—would remain part of Britain.
Poor Michael Collins: A hero of the Easter Uprising, but a young and inexperienced diplomat, he was sent to broker the 1921 deal with the British. He is said to have scratched his name on the Anglo-Irish Treaty with a sigh, saying, “I have signed my death warrant.” He was right; within nine months, Collins was dead.
Ireland was (sort of) free, but Ireland divided wasn’t the answer desired by the Irish masses. Nevertheless, one faction—Fine Gael—accepted the 1921 treaty. Another faction—Fianna Fáil—didn’t. Emotions ran so fierce that the treaty led to a brutal year-long civil war. The protreaty faction won, but the disappointment over a split Ireland never subsided. Meanwhile, a virulent anger was festering in Northern Ireland. Some Catholics moved south to independent Ireland, but those who remained in the north had few rights.
Even into the 1970s, good Protestants were taught that Catholics (who went to different schools, lived in other parts of town, and even had their own taxi services) were semicivilized beasts who didn’t even know how to use knives and forks.
More than 3,600 people died during the three decades euphemistically termed “The Troubles.” The conflict started in Northern Ireland in 1969, when Catholics led a passive protest in Belfast demanding equal rights, and Ulster (Protestant) militiamen attacked them with wood beams, iron rods, bottles, and chains. The Troubles had begun—and they carried on for the next thirty years, centered mostly in Belfast and Derry (aka Londonderry).
Loyalists called the Northern city Londonderry, underscoring their link to Britain; Republicans called it Derry, emphasizing their disrespect for London.
MEET THE FIGHTERS
Whether they want Ireland united or to keep the North linked to Britain, most Irish and Northern Irish don’t condone violence on behalf of the cause. But chances are some of their ancestors died in the never-ending battle.
Nationalists, Republicans: Typically Catholic, want Ireland and the North politically united.
Loyalists, Unionists: Typically Protestant, want Northern Ireland to stay linked to London.
Irish Republican Army: Nationalist paramilitaries who sprung up in 1969, bombing cars and buildings and typically harming civilians, want to unite Northern Ireland with the Republic. Called a cease-fire and disarmed in 2005; good thing—everybody’s sick of ‘em.
Real IRA: A more-radical IRA cell that branched into its own group, keeps on bombing, as do other offshoots.
Sinn Féin: The political arm of the IRA, whose leader, Gerry Adams, says he has no control over the IRA, although few really believe him. He says the IRA is giving up the fight to unite Northern Ireland with the republic, and we really want to believe him. Sinn féin means “we ourselves” in Irish Gaelic.
Ulster Defense Association, Red Hand Commando, and others: Loyalist Norther
n Ireland paramilitaries, as violent as the IRA, who go through waves of calm and violence. Like to leave territorial markings in the form of the “Ulster flag”—a bloodred imprint.
Northern Irish Police: Catholics accused these Protestant police of discrimination. Police stations were the targets of intense IRA bombings and now look like fortresses.
Most of the deaths (many were civilians) were the responsibility of two parties: the Irish Republican Army and the equally violent protestant Ulster Defense Association and Ulster Volunteer Force.
A FEW TROUBLING MOMENTS
Bloody Sunday, 1972: A symbolic anti-British protest in Derry (aka Londonderry) turned nasty; thirteen protesters killed, allegedly by British troops.
Bloody Friday, 1972: IRA sets off car bombs all over Belfast; twenty-two bombs explode within seventy-five terrifying minutes.
Orange marches, annually: Every spring, hundreds of older Protestants march to the beat of drums through Northern Ireland’s Catholic neighborhoods in an aggressive display of sectarian hatred.
Ulster bombings, 1974: Protestant Loyalists explode bombs in the Republic of Ireland; thirty-three die.
IRA killing, 1979: IRA hits Lord Mountbatten, the queen’s uncle.
Food strike, 1981: Ten IRA prisoners starve themselves to death, including first Sinn Fein minister, Bobby Sands.
Brighton bombing, 1984: IRA bomb blasts Brighton’s Grand Hotel, where Margaret Thatcher is staying; four die, including political VIPs.
Downing Street mortar attack, 1991: IRA launches mortars at 10 Downing Street, the residence of the PM.
By the 1990s, pretty much everybody was Troubled-out. There had been far too many funerals, and attacks on those attending the funerals; too many had suffered, and nothing had been accomplished. Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams began talking with Irish nationalist John Hume, the IRA declared a cease-fire, the Ulster Boys followed, and the United States flew George Mitchell in for peace talks. Despite plenty of stumbling along the way, and plenty of stumbling since, the 1998 Good Friday Agreement was hammered out. Fliers were slipped under every door across the Irish isle, explaining the treaty and urging voters to turn out. They did so in huge numbers, and an overwhelming majority voted yes to the Good Friday Agreement. The era of bombs left in briefcases at bus stops (a signature of the IRA) and protesters beaten with iron rods (a signature of Ulster thugs) had theoretically ended. However, radicals from both sides keep the conflict alive, as does the good reverend Ian Paisley, whose motto, when it comes to negotiating with Catholics, is “No Surrender!”
The British government has been slowly giving Northern Ireland more independence, but many think the chains that bind Ulster to Britain will never be fully unlocked. One factor: Northern Ireland industries pay huge taxes that London would miss. On the other hand, the costs of maintaining police and military there continually drain the British coffers.
Hot Spots
Dublin: A century ago, the Republic of Ireland’s capital was a battlefield that many fled; now it’s simply a blast, and exploding with immigrants. Computer geeks abound here, where the country’s wealth is concentrated.
The countryside: Job possibilities and income levels still lag in rural areas, but gee they’re pretty…
The Irish Sea: It’s the world’s most radioactive, thanks to Britain; nuclear compound Sellafield releases its waste into the waters between Britain and Ireland.
Northern Ireland (aka Ulster): Blustery coasts, crumbling castles, and enchanting inns are some of the reasons tourists have been taking a peek in these parts since the Good Friday Agreement was signed. They might not be seeing the high walls that still divide Protestant and Catholic neighborhoods.
Hotshots
Mary McAleese: President of Republic of Ireland, 1997–present. It’s a veritable trend; twice in a row, women have sat in Ireland’s presidential seat. Barrister McAleese, of Fianna Fáil, is sharp and looks good on TV. No wonder—she’s a former broadcaster.
Mary Robinson: President of Republic of Ireland, 1990–1996. (See box on page 130.)
Former president Mary Robinson brought Ireland into the present
HERE’S TO YOU, MRS. (MARY) ROBINSON
No one in modern Irish history did more to catapult Éire into the present than former president Mary Robinson. Holding law degrees from Trinity College Dublin and Harvard before she was twenty-five, she won a Labor seat in the Irish parliament the next year, where she stood out as a reformist. Winning the presidency in 1990, she pushed women’s rights, legalized contraception and divorce, and was so effective in her seven-year term as president that she had the approval of 97 percent of the Irish. She hit all kinds of buttons, meeting first with Gerry Adams and then the British queen. While giving a firsthand report on Rwanda, the typically reserved lawyer broke into tears, moving audience members to the same. After the presidency, she headed the United Nations High Commission for Human Rights (1997–2002) but the Bush administration, furious about her criticisms of the Afghanistan war, ensured that her first term was her last. Now she’s president of the Ethical Globalization Initiative, a humans rights organization that she founded.
The U.S. government may have saved Robinson’s life by shoving her out of the High Commission for Human Rights. She was replaced by Brazilian Sergio Vieira de Mello, who was killed several months later when the UN headquarters in Iraq was bombed.
Bertie Ahern: Prime Minister of Republic of Ireland, 1997–present. “The Teflon Taoiseach” has reigned during Ireland’s most glorious hour; he’s the only prime minister in Irish history to be elected to two consecutive terms.
OSCAR FINGAL O’FLAHERTIE WILLS WILDE (1854–1900)
With drooping almond eyes and a long face under a flip of dark hair, Oscar Wilde looked melancholy even before 1895, when everything went to hell. Born in Dublin to a wealthy surgeon, Oscar stood out at Trinity College for his crackling wit, dandyish appearance, and fondness for decorating with peacock feathers—and, of course, for his gifts with the pen, which garnered him a slew of awards. Wilde married wealthy Constance Lloyd, sired two sons, and ventured into books: first poetry, then fairy tales, and finally the stinging high-society novels and plays that made him famous. A Picture of Dorian Gray came out in 1891, to popular acclaim, and in 1895, The Importance of Being Earnest was performed to rave reviews in London, but Wilde’s high lifestyle soon spiraled downward. Manuscripts he was working on were stolen and, worse, his double life emerged. (Apparently, he wasn’t joking when he wrote in Dorian Gray that “the one charm of marriage is that it makes a life of deception necessary for both parties.”) When the Marquis of Queensberry—father of Wilde’s young lover, Lord Alfred “Bosie” Douglas—publicly accused Wilde of homosexuality, the playwright sued for libel and lost. After Wilde lied in court about his dealings with Bosie, the tables turned and he became the target of London prosecutors. Found guilty of “gross indecency,” he was sentenced to two years hard labor in Reading Prison. Upon release, Wilde slithered off nearly penniless to live in Paris as Sebastian Melmoth. Shortly after writing The Ballad of Reading Gaol, he died of cerebral meningitis—but thanks to a wealthy fan, he ultimately ended up with a fancy tomb in Père Lachaise.
Bono: Born in 1960 in Dublin as Paul Hewson, U2’s humanitarian lead singer brings politics to music and makes huge donations to fight HIV and poverty; he also brought U.S. Secretary of Defense Paul O’Neill on a tour of Africa as part of his campaign to convince rich nations to drop outstanding Third World debt. Wanted to become president of World Bank, but Paul Wolfowitz beat him out.
Seamus Heaney: Winner of the 1995 Nobel Prize for Literature. Poet, essayist, and professor, Heaney captures the divide between agricultural and industrial Ireland, as well as that between the Six Counties and the Republic.
Maeve Binchy: Former London correspondent for the Irish Times, Binchy turned to fiction, writing over a dozen novels about everyday Irish life that far outsell fellow Irish bards Beckett, Joyce, Yeats, and Wilde.
Jam
es Joyce, aka Séamas Seoighe: Between his binge drinking, eye problems, financial woes, blowouts with publishers, familial fights, schizophrenic daughter, and parapatetic wanderings across Europe, it’s a wonder the ex-pat from Dublin got anything done, but he did. Among his more easily digested works: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Dubliners, and (less so) Finnegans Wake. His magnum opus, however, was the groundbreaking novel Ulysses. The book that covers one day in eighteen chapters took seven years to write.
7. SPAIN
(España)
Living It Up
FAST FACTS
Country: Kingdom of Spain; Reino de España
Capital: Madrid
Government: Parliamentary monarchy
Independence: Unified 1492; Franco dictatorship ended 1975
Population: 40,398,000
Head of State: King Juan Carlos I (1975)
Head of Government: Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (2004)
Elections: Monarchy is hereditary; leader of majority party approved by monarch, elected by parliament
Name of Parliament: Cortes
Ethnicity: Historically Mediterranean, but millions of Latinos from the Americas, Moroccans, Algerians, Africans, Eastern Europeans, and retired Brits have recently immigrated, some legally
What Every American Should Know About Europe Page 17