by Marie Arana
“Canto de guerra” (Belli), 196
“Canto General” (Neruda), 11
Cao, Lady of, 266
Caonao massacre, 139, 285
Capac Ñan (Royal Road), 20, 32, 35
capacocha ritual, 273
capitalism, 12, 92, 96, 195–96
Capitulación de Toledo, 82
Capitulations of Santa Fe, 47, 50
Carabaya, Rio, 45
Carabaya cordillera, 16–17
Cardenal, Ernesto, 326, 334
Cardenal, Fernando, 326
Cárdenas, Lázaro, 116
Caribbean, 23, 138–41, 262, 315–16
Caribs, 138–41, 144
Carlos II, king of Spain, 296
Carlos IV, king of Spain, 163–65, 168
Carlos V, Holy Roman emperor (Carlos I of Spain), 58, 63, 65–66, 69, 71–72, 75, 78, 82, 83, 88, 91, 92, 94, 97, 100, 148, 381, 382
Carlota, princess of Mexico, 195
Carlyle, Thomas, 166, 174–75
Carranza, Venustiano, 245
Cartagena, 96, 120
Carter, Jimmy, 136, 207, 221, 233
Casaldáliga, Pedro, 325–26
Casqui, 249
Castile, 40, 42, 301
Castro, Fidel, 184, 188, 218, 349
in Columbia, 203–4
Cuban Revolution led by, 159–62, 179, 203–4, 311, 322
Cuba under, 136–37, 179–81, 190, 204–8, 228, 233–34, 238, 244, 354, 412
Castro, Raúl, 120, 160, 184, 412
Catalonia, 252, 271, 292, 310, 327, 360
Catari, Tomás, 155–56
Catholicism, Catholic Church, 4, 40, 50, 102, 111, 123, 139, 155, 195, 196, 211, 212, 240, 253, 276–312, 315, 330, 338, 344, 362
abuses of, 306–9, 333, 347
bishops vs. mendicants in, 303, 311
change and transformation embraced by, 347–49
counterrepression against, 199
decline in Latin America of, 320–37
education and, 227, 306, 308–9, 317, 319
forced conversion to, 41, 42, 50, 71, 88, 91, 154, 267, 277–78, 282, 288, 295, 299, 307–8, 316
incorporated into indigenous religions, 3–6, 299, 315–16, 323, 346
largest population of, 330
opulent edifices of, 304–5, 314
paradox of, 358–59
political corruption and, 358–59
postrevolutionary crisis and recasting of, 313–50
present-day initiatives of, 330–39, 437–38
rift between bishops and mendicants in, 303, 311
social activism of, see liberation theology
Spain in power of, 71–72, 281, 302–3, 314, 324
superimposed on indigenous sacred sites, 37–38, 96, 290, 295, 299, 388
as unifying force, 5–6, 306
wealth of, 303–6
see also Vatican
cattle industry, 206, 208
cédulas de Gracias al Sacar (certificates of whiteness), sale of, 240, 358
Center for Research and Promotion of Farmers (CIPCA), 327
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 188, 200, 203, 218, 334, 411–12
Cerro Rico, 11–13
Cervantes, Miguel de, 41, 97, 376–77
Chaco War (1932–1935), 270, 291
Chaffee, Fort, 137, 234
chalchihuitl, 383
Charismatics, 335
Charlotte, queen of Portugal, 164
chasquis (messengers), 33–35
Chávez, Hugo, 116, 242, 244, 349, 353, 360
Chavín civilization, 22
Chavín de Huántar, 106, 265
Cheops, pharoah or Egypt, 265
Chiapas rebellion, 340–43
chicha (liquor), 86, 155, 292
Chichén Itzá, 24, 256, 265
Chichimecas, 299, 307
chichiqueo (silver-extraction technique), 126
Chilám Balám, 23, 83, 264
children, 220, 247, 265
in drug trade, 225, 356
effect of drug addiction on, 237
hopes for future of, 127–28, 359
labor of, 12–13, 99, 111, 121, 125–27, 237
military use of, 177, 184, 216
in prostitution, 4, 112–13, 392
ritual sacrifice of, 272–74
in terrorism, 230
as victims of violence, 150, 181, 219, 352
Children of Cain (Rosenberg), 210
Chile, 31–32, 73, 119, 120, 132, 171, 188–89, 192, 213–14, 225, 228, 242, 244, 270, 308
Chimú people, 5, 22
China, Chinese, 14, 97, 109, 120, 122, 260, 318
bias against, 173, 240
Communist, 227–29
Chiquita Brands International, see United Fruit Company
Chiriguano people, 350
cholera, 232
Cholula, 79, 265, 425
Choquehuanca, David, 349–50
Christianity, 39, 277, 301, 346
abuses of, 98–99, 277
biased perceptions of, 25, 255–56, 276
global shift in, 330–31
indigenous religions vs., 255–56
postrevolutionary redefining of, 313–19
as rationale for conquest, 47, 54–55, 57, 58, 66, 71, 75, 98, 139–40, 145, 150, 152, 154, 249, 255, 273–75, 276, 282, 297, 301
schism in, 281
see also Catholicism, Catholic Church; missionaries; Protestantism
Chuschi, 228
Ciboney people, 138
Cipango (Japan), 44, 47, 49, 52
Cisneros y Cisneros de Arana, Rosa, 7
Ciudad Trujillo, 200, 241
Ciudad y los Perros, La (English title: The Time of the Hero; Vargas Llosa), 208–9
Civil War, U.S., 314
Clara (Buergos’s wife), 236–37, 360
Clinton, Bill, 246
coal industry, 119, 121, 252, 254
Coatlicue, 106, 108, 151, 221, 257, 266, 315
coats of arms, 71, 100
cocaine:
lure of and addiction to, 235–38, 360
trafficking of, 110, 224–25, 357, 358
U.S. demand for, 224, 234–36, 356
coca leaf, 17, 111, 224, 360
Cochabamba, Bolivia, 252, 268–69
coffee industry, 114–17, 197, 200, 220, 221
Cold War, 202
Colegio de San Gregorio, Valladolid, conference at, 287, 308
Colegio San Ignacio, 251
Colombia, 2, 74, 85, 109, 114–15, 119, 121, 132, 155, 169, 171, 174, 181, 189–90, 200–204, 209, 214, 223–25, 241, 244–45, 351–52, 356, 418
Colombian Communist Party, 203
Colombian Liberal Party, 202
Columbus, Bartholomew, 44
Columbus, Christopher, 52, 73, 91, 115, 142, 144, 283–84, 294, 297, 428
awards and accolades for, 50–51
brutality of, 51–52, 54, 298, 362
downfall of, 51–53
first voyage and landing of, 14, 39, 46–51, 55, 67, 120, 132, 138, 151, 153, 154, 191, 198–99, 254, 261, 297, 349
five hundredth anniversary of, 334–35
geographical misperception of, 44, 48–50, 52, 57, 361
New World wonders displayed by, 49–50, 140
three subsequent voyages of, 49, 51–53, 115, 139–40, 283
Columbus, Diego, 52–53, 284
Columbus, Fernando, 52–53
Combinado del Este prison, 208, 222, 234
Comentarios (Cabeza de Vaca), 274
Commission for Historical Clarification, 215
Communism:
Chinese, 227
Cuban, 161, 179, 181, 187, 205, 322, 354
Fourth Sword of, 228
opposition to, 202, 212–13, 268, 326, 332, 333, 409, 438
proliferation in Latin America of, 215, 224, 293–94, 323, 325
as rationale for U.S. incursions into Latin America, 117, 187–91, 218, 219, 221, 293
Soviet, see Soviet Union
in Spain, 252–53
in Third World, 181, 222, 355
Communist Party:
of Ecuador, 294
of Peru, 227–28
compelle intrare (forced conversion), 288
compromisos (commitments), 376
Condor, Operation, 213–15, 328, 415
Conga mine, 122–24
Conquest of the Incas, The (Hemming), 30
conquistadors:
as authoritarian, 192
as “bearded ones,” 33–34, 36, 63, 69, 86, 266
brutal and bellicose nature of, 3, 54, 55, 74, 138–39, 147, 189, 284–86, 299
clergy accompanying, 297–309
commonality among, 73–75, 83–84, 147, 298, 300–301
hardships and hazards of, 77–81
heroic legend vs. reality of, 151, 300
lure of mineral wealth for, 30, 57, 69, 76, 95, 180
see also specific individuals
Constantinople, 62
Contras, 216, 221
conversos, 42, 376–77
Copán, Honduras, 264
copper, 13, 20, 23, 32, 49, 85, 104, 109, 119, 120, 148
Cora people, 316
Coricancha (Temple of the Sun), 13–14, 20, 36–37, 91, 273, 305
Cornell University, 312, 317, 320
corruption:
culture of, 174, 176, 178, 180, 187, 189, 357–59
as more subtle use of violence, 242–43
political and corporate, 243, 357–58
religious, 280–82, 287, 302, 333, 347, 358–59
Cortés, Hernán, 26, 55–56, 58, 63, 71, 76, 83, 84, 93, 138, 147, 299, 300, 358
brutality of, 2, 55, 152, 299, 300
clergy accompanying, 298–300
commonalities between Pizarro and, 83–85, 88, 92
discoveries and conquests of, 14, 53–58, 60–71, 73–74, 80, 82, 85, 93, 96, 142, 152–54, 217, 222, 247, 255, 257, 276–79, 281, 290, 297–300, 304, 349, 362, 382–83
heroic legend vs. reality of, 300
Montezuma and, 14, 25–26, 29–30, 60–68, 88, 259, 276, 278, 297, 299–300, 304, 349, 381–82
Costa Rica, 49, 242, 261
cotton, 116, 148
Council of the Indies, 69, 117, 147, 148, 164, 289, 313, 324
coups, 189, 196, 212, 216, 218, 219, 228
Creoles (criollos), 101–4, 116, 129, 156–58, 165–69, 171, 293, 306, 313
crime, 238–48
corporate, 117–18
in Cuba, 206–7, 222, 233
drug cartels and, 225, 235–38, 355–56
immigration and, 135–37, 360
in mining industry, 109–13
see also Buergos, Carlos
Crimean War, 239
Cristero rebellion, 196
Cromwell, Oliver, 199
Crucero, Peru, 45–46
Crusades, 141, 274, 301
“Cry of Dolores,” 324
Cuauhtémoc, Aztec emperor, 68
Cuba, 49, 55–58, 63, 67, 70, 73, 114, 135, 138–45, 159, 160–62, 178, 179–81, 205–8, 228, 233, 238, 244, 284
and Angola civil war, 181–87, 205
Communism and, 181–82, 187
Mariel boat lift from, 135–37
U.S commercial and political dominion in, 159–60, 178–79
U.S. embargo of, 120, 161
Cuban Missile Crisis, 323
Cuban revolution, 159–62, 178–81, 187, 190, 254, 311, 322
aftermath of, 205–8, 216, 238
insurgencies spurred by, 215, 218, 322
see also Castro, Fidel
Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, 193
cuota, la (quota of blood), 231–32
curacas (tribal leaders), 20
Cuzco, Peru, 13, 20, 24, 30, 32, 35–38, 84, 85, 91, 92, 112, 113, 127, 150, 156–57, 256, 259–60, 273, 301, 376
cyanide, 37, 111, 123
Danner, Mark, 216–17
Darwin, Charles, 16, 209
Dávila, Pedrarias “Wrath of God,” 57, 74, 76–78
death and burial rituals, 21, 22, 36, 38, 261, 262, 273, 274
death squads, 211, 215, 216–19, 333
decapitation, 33, 57, 142–43, 151, 153, 157, 169, 219, 225, 232, 247, 274, 277, 289, 324, 440
democracy:
elections in, 254
Latin American failures of, 192–93, 195, 243, 245–47, 349, 360
Deng Siao Ping, 229
deplazados, los (the displaced), 225
de Soto, Hernando, 53, 73, 86, 90, 93
diamonds, 121, 182, 339
Dias, Bartolomeu, 44
Díaz, Juan, 382
Díaz, Junot, 198
Díaz, Porfirio, 194, 195–96
Díaz de Castillo, Bernal, 381, 383
dictatorships, 175, 203, 243, 253, 332, 339, 357–58
as legacy of revolution, 177–78, 192–222, 243–44, 349, 360, 362
rise of, 101, 103, 174–78, 192–222, 238
Diquí people, 261
Dirty War (Guerra Sucia; Argentina), 2, 212–13
disappeared, the (los desaparecidos), 188, 189, 198, 211, 212–14, 217, 218, 225, 229, 242, 244, 247, 356
diseases, 81, 127, 180
indigenous decimation by, 138, 151–53, 210, 245, 282, 283, 307
of miners, 111, 121
see also specific diseases
Dole International, 114
Dominican order, 2–3, 42, 262, 284, 286, 301, 302–3, 306, 308, 428, 433
Dominican Republic, 117, 121, 198–200, 203, 244
John Paul II’s address to, 334–35
Don Quixote (Cervantes), 97
Drake, Francis, 96, 165
drug cartels, 120, 224–25, 235, 244, 343, 352
drug trade, 173, 235–38, 245, 248, 332, 354–57, 360, 440, 445, 446
Buergos in, 235–38, 355
death toll of, 356–57
economies fueled by, 255–56
rise of, 223–48
routes of, 242, 444
Shining Path financed by, 229–30, 355, 418
in U.S., 120, 234–37, 356
Drummond Company, 119
Dulles, Allen, 114, 392
Dulles, John Foster, 114, 218, 392
earthquakes, 219, 220
Economist, 242
Ecuador, 73, 79, 82, 109, 132, 155, 165–66, 171, 230, 242, 265
Xavier’s mission in, 210, 292–94, 317
Edmond, Rayful, III, 236
education, 127, 129, 220, 226–28, 232, 359
Catholic, 227, 295–96, 306, 308–9, 317, 319
Jesuit, 251–54, 292–96
Egypt, ancient, 263, 265
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 161, 392
El Dorado, 1–8, 22, 94, 144
El Imperio, U.S. as, 119–20
Elizabeth I, queen of England, 96, 97, 115
El Salvador, 117, 181, 209, 215–17, 221, 241, 330, 333–34, 341, 357
El Tío, 59, 107–8, 113, 124, 126, 127, 130, 248
Emancipation Proclamation, 171
Embargo Act (1807), 164
Empire of the Sun, see Inca Empire
Enawenê-Nawê people, 339
En Carne Viva (In Living Flesh), 327
encomiendas, encomenderos (plantations; plantation owners), 76, 283–85, 287–90
Enlightenment, 101, 103, 167, 170, 177, 193, 241
environment, 327, 357, 391
effects of mining on, 11–13, 109–11, 121, 123
época del perrero (era of the dogcatcher), 239
Espinal, Luis “Lucho,” 327–28, 436
Europe, 93–96, 167–68, 280–82, 323, 331, 356
biased perceptions of, 19, 115–16, 209–10, 255–56, 276, 278, 283, 287–88, 295, 301, 313, 330, 333, 350, 361–62
Latin American wealth funneled into, 12, 92, 95–96, 101
medieval world view of, 48, 71, 142
mineral wealth in economy of, 41, 43, 66–67, 92, 95–96
Evangelical Protestant movements:
conservative ideology of, 336–37
Exxon, ExxonMobil, 116, 212
Familia Michoacana, La, 440
fanfarrones (gold chains), 67–68
farming, 65, 270–71, 340, 446
Fascism, 182, 354
Ferdinand V, king of Spain, 39–44, 47–49, 54, 58, 66, 76, 141, 286, 401
Ferdinand VII, king of Spain, 102, 163–64, 166, 167–69, 172
Fifth Sun, 257
financial crisis (2008), 110
fishing industry, 109
Florentine Codex, The, 259
Florida, Cuban immigration to, 135–37, 207–8, 360
Fontainebleau, Treaty of (1807), 164
Fort Indiantown Gap, 234
France, 83, 167, 168, 195
Spain and, 163–65, 169, 239, 287
see also Napoleon I
Francia, José Gaspar Rodríguez de “El Supremo,” 174–76
Francis I, Pope, 313, 332, 347
Franciscan order, 279, 281–82, 287, 298–300, 302–3, 305, 306, 307, 308–9, 316, 319, 325
Franco, Francisco, 253, 271, 338, 358, 394
French Revolution, 102, 167
frente, la, 221
Frente de Liberación Nacional (FLN), 341
Fuentes, Carlos, 345, 377
Fujimori, Alberto “El Chino,” 232, 244, 346, 349, 360
fukú, 198
Gadsden Purchase (1853), 410
Gage, Thomas, 304
Gaitán, Gloria, 411–12
Gaitán, Jorge, 202–4, 351–52, 411–12
Galán, José Antonio, 158
Galapagos Islands, 31
Galeano, Eduardo, 128, 276
Gallo island, 79–80
Gamboa, Jeremías, 135
Gamboa, Pedro Sarmiento de, 259
Gandhi, Mahatma, 327
gang violence, 235, 241–42, 246–48
García, Alan, 243
García Lorca, Federico, 108
García Márquez, Gabriel, 2, 115, 202, 346, 407
Garcilaso de la Vega, El Inca, 16, 37, 172, 259, 376
gemstones, 25, 31–33, 66, 67, 69, 79, 121, 144–45, 299
Genoa, Republic of, 41, 44
genocide, 141, 219–20
Geyer, Georgie Anne, 205
Girón Acuña Pacheco, Pedro, 40
global economy, 111–21, 131
Godoy, Manuel de, 163
gold, 1, 19–22, 25, 28, 30, 43–44, 45, 47–49, 56, 65, 71, 92, 109, 120, 121–22, 131, 197, 200, 223, 248, 392
conquistadors’ plunder of, 65–70, 90–92
as currency of Europe, 40–41, 43, 66–67
greed for, 15–16, 18, 30, 39–72, 82, 83, 85, 90–92, 94, 105
“seeds,” 37–38
total historical output of, 109
Gonzáles, Leonor, 1–4, 6, 17, 37, 45–46, 59–60, 107, 124–28, 130, 131, 262, 337, 354, 359, 363, 376
“Gonzalo Thought,” 228
“Good Neighbor Policy,” 159
Granada, 41–42, 54, 61
Granada, Luis de, 251
Granada Massacre, 399