fighting is ended, rival claims are put to inconclusive arbitration
661
Ali assassinated by disaffected supporters of his shi’ah, ‘party’
Mu’awiyah, of Meccan old regime, widely accepted as caliph
Mu’awiyah first of the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs
his capital, Damascus, becomes that of the Arab empire
670
foundation of al-Qayrawan, garrison city in Tunisia
680
death of Mu’awiyah
al-Husayn b. Ali revolts against Umayyad rule and is killed
he becomes the first great martyr of the shi’ah, the party of Ali
680s
Arab-led forces reach the Atlantic shore of N Africa
Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr establishes anti-caliphate in Mecca
a ‘N–S split’ has re-emerged in those of peninsular origin
Ibn al-Zubayr courts ‘Northerners’, wins territory even in Syria
691
Dome of the Rock completed in Jerusalem
692
Meccan anti-caliphate of Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr defeated
peninsular Arabia sidelined politically
peninsular Arabia sidelined culturally
694 on
al-Hajjaj tries to exterminate anti-Umayyad opposition in Iraq
by late 7th century
population of al-Basrah, Iraq, reaches 200,000
spoken Arabic begins to ‘mongrelize’
large numbers of non-Arabs are affiliated to Arab tribes
c. 700
an Arabic-inscribed coinage is introduced
high Arabic is made the language of imperial administration
an upsurge in writing brings about improvements in Arabic script
the use of high Arabic spreads rapidly among non-Arabs
linguistic sciences (grammar, philology, etc.) begin to develop
early 8th century
Arab-led forces established in C Asian Transoxania
Arabs establish limited rule in Sind (Pakistan)
711
Tariq b. Ziyad leads mainly Berber forces into Spain
715
the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus is completed
by c. 720
construction of N Arab lines of descent from Isma’il
construction of S Arab lines of descent from Qahtan
all Arabs now united in theory by genetics, if not by politics
732
Arab-led forces clash with Carolingian force near Poitiers
747
Abbasid revolution launched in Khurasan (E Persia)
fellow revolutionaries include supporters of the shi’ah of Ali
750
Abbasid forces defeat and exterminate Umayyads
al-Saffah becomes first Abbasid caliph
Abbasids start eliminating fellow revolutionaries
751
Arab-led forces clash with Chinese, E of the Syr Darya River
754
al-Mansur succeeds al-Saffah as Abbasid caliph
mid-8th century on
paper-making spreads through the Arabic world
written Arabic proliferates because of the cheapness of paper
smoothness of paper promotes further improvements to script
Islamic legal and moral systems begin to be synthesized
756
an Umayyad survivor, Abd al-Rahman, founds Spanish dynasty
Arab migration to Spain increases
762
al-Mansur founds Baghdad
762 on
al-Mansur eliminates opposition within Abbasid family
he eliminates potential opposition from Abbasid revolutionary elite
he begins a trend by relying on non-Arab slaves as soldiers
774
King Offa of Mercia, England, imitates Abbasid coinage
788
a descendant of Ali founds the Idrisid dynasty in Morocco
late 8th century on
beginning of ‘the age of setting down’
during this age, Arab cultural legacy and identity are enshrined for posterity
a ‘bedouin’ past is promoted (actual bedouins are now marginal)
Persians, then many others, resuscitate their own cultures
their ‘Shu’ubi’ movements challenge Arab cultural hegemony
809
death of Caliph al-Rashid
the empire is divided between three of al-Rashid’s sons
two of the sons, al-Ma’mun and al-Amin, fight each other
813 on
al-Ma’mun is victorious, establishes rule over all the empire
al-Ma’mun imports Transoxanian troops into Baghdad
early 9th century
intellectual openness under the caliph al-Ma’mun
the Mu’tazilah promote theological debate
written Arabic prose at last becomes a medium of expression
816
al-Ma’mun designates the Shi’i imam al-Rida as his heir
818
al-Rida dies; reconciliation with the Shi’ah is shelved
832
al-Ma’mun founds the House of Wisdom
833
al-Mu’tasim becomes caliph, imports Turkish and other troops
the troops cause havoc in Baghdad
836
al-Mu’tasim moves non-Arab troops to a new capital, Samarra’
9th century
al-Baladhuri records Arab conquests
al-Jahiz analyses arabness, rebuffs the Shu’ubis
islamization accelerates, belatedly, across the empire
‘being Arab’ now matters less: the empire is cosmopolitan
Byzantines and Chinese imitate Arab clothing fashions
Spanish Christians become completely arabicized
mid 9th century
under Caliph al-Mutawakkil, theological speculation is banned
861
al-Mutawakkil killed in plot by son and Turkish guards
real power in hands of Turkic military commanders
868
Persian Saffarid dynasty independent of Baghdad in the E
Egypt breaks away from Baghdad under C Asian Tulunids
869–83
rebellion in Iraq of the Zanj (plantation slaves from E Africa)
890 on
rebellion in Iraq and beyond of peasants under Hamdan Qarmat
the rebellion allies itself to the Isma’ilis, a Shi’i splinter-group
late 9th century
Samarra’ abandoned
early 10th century
from now, political power of Baghdad caliphate only covers Iraq
10th century
the Arab empire fragments irreparably
but in the C and the W culture is still Arabic, patrons proliferate
multi-volume anthologies and histories enshrine Arab heritage
Arab Hamdanid dynasty prominent in N Iraq and N Syria
910
Fatimid dynasty (of dubiously Arab origin) established in N Africa
Fatimids adopt the title ‘caliph’
922
execution of the nonconformist visionary al-Hallaj
929
Abd al-Rahman III (Spanish Umayyad) claims the title ‘caliph’
930
Qarmati rebels raid Mecca and remove the sacred Black Stone
938
Bajkam, Turkish generalissimo, effective ruler in Baghdad
940
death of al-Radi, ‘the last real caliph’ (even if powerless)
now there are three rival titular caliphates: Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova
the idea of Arab unity is at a low, 300 years after its high point
945
Iranian Buwayhids take power in Baghdad
mid 10th century
Cordova now a great centre of Arabic culture
966–8
the eunuch slave Kafur holds power in Egypt
968
Fatimids enter Egypt
969
Cairo founded as new Fatimid capital
c. 970
Turkic Saljuqs begin takeover of caliphal territory
later 10th century
the Qarmati-Isma’ili ‘intellectual wing’ synthesizes scientific lore
1031
the Umayyad caliphate in Spain fragments
the ‘Party Kings’ rule numerous small Iberian states
1055
Saljuqs take Baghdad
mid-11th century
Banu Hilal and other big Arab tribes are moved W from Egypt
belated arabization of rural N Africa
1061 on
Normans take over Arab-ruled Sicily
later 11th century
Saljuqs control the entire E wing of the old Arab empire
Saljuqs have adopted Persian as their cultural language
Saljuq Vizier Nizam al-Mulk encourages madrasahs and Arabic studies
1085
Christian Spanish retake Toledo
Christian Spanish maintain traditions of Arabic learning
1086 on
Berber Almoravids stop Christian advance and take over S Spain
Almoravids claim Arabian ancestry
1099
Crusaders take Jerusalem, massacre inhabitants
1130s
court of Roger II, Norman king of Sicily, largely Arabic in culture
12th century
the Crusades channel Arabic words and ideas to Europe
Arabic learning spreads into Europe via Sicily and S Italy
mid-12th century
Berber Almohad alliance takes over S Spain
Almohad leader is first avowed non-Arab to adopt the title ‘caliph’
Almohads embrace urban Arabic culture
1169
Kurdish Ayyubids established in Cairo
1171
Ayyubid Salah al-Din (Saladin) abolishes Fatimate caliphate
Saladin re-establishes nominal suzerainty of Abbasid caliphs
1219
Crusaders take Damietta (Egypt)
Mongols appear in Islamic lands
Mongols perpetrate urban massacres, cause rural devastation
13th century
Ibn Khallikan’s biographical dictionary, Notable Deaths
1248
Christian Spanish retake Seville
1250
Turkic Mamluk slave-soldiers take over in Egypt and Syria
1258
Mongols under Hulagu take Baghdad, kill Caliph al-Musta’sim
any last pretense of Arab unity ends
social breakdown: tribal Arabs raid settled lands
Mamluks host Abbasid puppet caliphate in Egypt
1260
Mamluks halt Mongol advance at Ayn Jalut (Palestine)
late 13th century
Arabs found sultanate of Kilwa Kisiwani (Tanzania)
W Mongols adopt Islam and Persian culture
most Crusaders have left the Levant
early 14th century
Arab tribes switch loyalties from Mamluks to Mongols and back
14th century
Pax Mongolica: hemiglobal trade and travel flourish
Egypt-based Karim merchants active from Atlantic to Pacific
Arabic culture and Islam spread between W Africa and E Indies
Arabic script used for many languages, Africa to Asia
start of 250-year diaspora of Arabs around Indian Ocean rim
Moroccan Ibn Battutah travels in three continents
Cairo is the biggest city outside China and the capital of Arabic culture
Arabic culture also flourishes in Granada, Spain
1343
Sultanate of Delhi a nominal vassal to Abbasid puppet caliph
1340s on
plague destroys a third of humanity from China to Europe
1375–9
Ibn Khaldun works on his History
c. 1400
Mongol leader Timur Lang (Tamerlane) devastates Levant etc.
15th century
Arab al-Ma’qil tribe begin to penetrate Mauritania
belated arabization from this last major migration
1453
Ottoman Turks take Constantinople
1485
Ottomans ban printing in Arabic
1488
Portuguese round the Cape of Good Hope
start of European attempts to monopolize Indian Ocean trade
1492
Granada falls to Christian forces from Castile
1516
Ottomans take Damascus
1517
Ottomans take Cairo and its dependencies, Medina and Mecca
Ottomans remove Abbasid puppet caliph to Constantinople
1519
Algiers submits to Ottoman suzerainty
1520s
Ottomans established in Yemen
1534
Ottomans take Baghdad
16th century on
much of Arabic world Ottoman-ruled for most of the next 300 years
Arabs are united politically, but at the cost of their independence
any sense of widely-shared Arab identity enters a trough
1543
last Abbasid puppet caliph dies
in time, Ottoman sultans assume the title ‘caliph’
early 17th century
Lebanese Christian Arabs experiment with Arabic printing
the experiment does not spread
1630s on
opposition to Ottoman rule in Yemen
Ottomans withdraw from Yemen
1662–84
English control Tangier (Morocco)
Arabs Page 69