Marx, Karl, 32, 41, 383, 389
Maximes (La Rochefoucauld), 203, 230, 233
Méditations poétiques (Lamartine), 503, 504
Mercier, Louis-Sebastian, 504, 505
Mericourt, Theroigne de, 334–35
Middle Ages: and authority of the Ile de France, 21; authorship in, 25, 29; and courtly love, 29; and Italian republics, 445; and medieval history, 440, 445, 447; and medieval romance, 8, 29; and monastic life, 83; and Occitan troubadour poetry, 16; or “dark ages,” 56; poetry of, 137; and querelles des femmes, 29; as a regression to moderns and ancients, 272; and the Roman de la Rose, 8, 29, 32; and Romanticism, 439–40; and Tristan et Iseut, 440; and François Villon, 25; and written culture in the Church, 20, 25
Miroir de l’âme pécheresse, Le (The Mirror of the Sinful Soul) (Marguerite de Navarre): and Bale’s version The Glasse of the Synnefull Soule, 101; and feminine first-person speaker, 60; and love of Christ, 61; and Marot’s psalm translation, 66; and path to salvation, 60; publishing of, 60, 101; and relationship with Christ, 60–61; and translation of by Princess Elizabeth of England, 109
misanthrope, Le (Molière): action of, 188; and Alceste, 185–86, 188, 189; and Alceste’s friend Philinte, 185–87, 188; and Célimène, 185, 186, 188; and comedy of character, 184–85, 188–89; and Hobbes’s idea of man as a wolf to others, 187; and honnêteté, 187–88; and human nature, 186–87, 188; and hypocrisy, 186, 187; and public controversy, 175
modernism: and A la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time) (Proust), 517; and Guillaume Apollinaire’s importance, 510; and Apollinaire’s series of conversations, 548, 551; and Charles Baudelaire, 470, 471, 478, 491; and Candide (Voltaire), 294–95, 308; and comedy of character, 188; and cosmopolitanism, 12; and dilemma of the human condition, 208; and Du côté de chez Swann (Swann’s Way) (Proust), 517; and early modern period, 201, 250, 361; as emerging, 470; in England, 615; and Europe, 272; and existentialism, 13–14, 41; and Eysteinsson and Liska’s Modernism, 616; and fiction, 361; and foreignness, 13–14; French modernism, 615, 616; and French poetry, 5, 13, 270, 491; and imitation in English, 102–3; and impersonality of narration, 451; as international, 615; Irish modernism, 615, 616–18; and levels of historicity, 446–47; and Madame Bovary (Flaubert), 455; and mimesis, 602; and the modern as the new, 8; and modern novel, 595–613; and modern period, 5, 7; and modern public, 39; and modern situation comedy, 188; and modern stage, 171, 194, 443; and the modern writer, 302; and narrative, 605; and national literary culture, 7; and Perrault’s modern “method,” 279; and Phèdre, 208; and Pointed Roofs (Richardson), 517; and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (Joyce), 517; and Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, 16, 272; and Arthur Rimbaud, 491; and the self, 201; and the seventeenth century, 269–70; and shift from content to perceiving consciousness, 491; and surrealism, 13; and theater, 361; and Paul Verlaine, 491. See also modernity; surrealism
modernity: and acceptance of uncertainty, 88; and ancients versus moderns, 16, 209n2; and Baudelaire, 478, 616; and beginnings of in 1960s, 85; and Maurice Blanchot, 630; and Albert Camus, 627, 628, 630; and challenge to theology, 16; and civilization, 20–21, 42, 84–85, 273; and comparison between Rome and Greece, 273; and the degree zero of writing, 630; and divisio, 88; and Don Quixote (Cervantes), 87; and ethics of writing, 630; of European humanist learning, 143; and French classical tragedy, 173; and French Revolution, 630; and Jean Genet, 627, 630; and importance of the future, 447; and information, 524; and introduction of printing, 21; and Lautréamont, 616; and Mallarmé, 616; and Marivaux’s plays, 361; and mass culture, 524; and modern subject, 266; and Molière’s comedies, 174, 179–80; and northern melancholy, 332; and the nouveau roman, 630; and the Ossianic model, 332; and pantagruelism, 88; and the “progress” story, 16; and Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, 273, 275; and question of starting point, 84–85, 273; and Racine, 209n2; and the Renaissance, 15–16, 84; and secularism, 16, 173; and shocks to the senses, 525; and social sciences, 411; and style of writing, 630; and theater, 172–73; and theory of human progress, 273; and Virgil as modern before his time, 273; and work of Molière, 173; and work of Rabelais and contemporaries of, 19, 85; and work of Racine, 206; and work of Rousseau, 411. See also modernism
Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin): and Académie française, 634; as actor, 173, 174, 180–81, 188, 189; and actors of troupe, 173–74; and Amphitryon, 184; and Armand de Bourbon, prince of Conti, 181; and Le bourgeois gentilhomme (The Would-be Gentleman), 188–89; burial of, 176; career of, 25, 173; characters of, 202, 352–53; and comedy of character, 184–85, 188–89; and Critique de l’école des femmes (The Critique of the School for Wives), 175, 177; as director, 173, 174, 189; and Don Juan, 175, 180–84, 189, 353; and dramatic action, 361; and L’école des femmes (The School for Wives), 175, 176–77, 181; enemies of, 184; and family relationships, 355; and farce, 184, 353; and George Dandin, 184; and honnêteté, 189; and L’impromptu de Versailles (The Versailles Impromptu), 173–74, 177–78; and improvisational style of commedia dell’arte, 174; and justice, 182, 184; and Louis XIV, 174, 178, 179–80; and Le malade imaginaire (The Imaginary Invalid), 188–89; as a materialist, 182, 184; and Le misanthrope, 175, 184, 202; and modernity, 173, 174, 179–80; and morality, 182–83, 184; and obsession with medicine, 175; plays of, 40, 43, 76, 173–74, 179–80, 184–85, 353, 379; as playwright, 173, 174, 189, 351; and Les précieuses ridicules (The Pretentious Young Ladies), 222; and religious themes, 182–84; and rival theater company, 178; royal patronage of, 176, 180; sex in plays of, 177, 185; and Tartuffe, 175, 178, 180, 189, 353, 380, 423; and theatrical professionalism, 173–74; tradition of, 352; and vraisemblance (verisimilitude), 173, 174–75
monarchy: between 1790 and 1870, 419; and annexation of Occitania, 16; and anti-royalist Fronde era, 178, 203, 263, 264; and Armand de Bourbon, prince of Conti, 181; and Bourbon dynasty, 181, 419, 437, 504; and caste system, 363; and Catherine de Médicis, 121, 123, 132, 133, 134; and Catholicism, 157; and censorship, 351, 363; and Charles IX, 132, 133, 134; and Charles X, 432, 436; and coalition of European monarchies, 425; and concentration of power with king, 263, 269; and the court, 8, 113, 121, 123, 214–15, 218–19, 224, 353, 361, 363, 428; and death of François I, 120; and death of Louis XII, 99; and death of Mazarin, 203; and defense of by Ronsard, 132; devotion to, 126, 165; and the divine right of kings, 21–22, 45, 121; and duties to king and feudal hierarchy, 21, 120; and essay “Of the Useful and the Honorable” (Montaigne), 165; and feudal system, 21, 45, 121, 269; and François I, 118, 123, 138, 256; and François II, 114; and François’s death, 119; and French royal dynasty, 124; and Haitian government, 585; and Henri II, 113, 114, 121, 123, 126, 129, 214, 223; and Henri IV, 121, 161; and Hobbes’s body politic, 238; imperial ambitions of, 159; and July Monarchy, 436–37, 441; and justification for regicide, 160; and king in Diderot’s novel, 388, 389; and liberal monarchies, 432, 433; and Louis XI, 418; and Louis XII, 118; and Louis XIV, 174, 178, 203, 214, 254, 255, 263, 269, 444–45, 518; and Louis XV, 361, 374; and Louis XVI, 362, 363, 364, 365, 503; and Louis Philippe, 432–33, 436–37; and Marguerite de Navarre’s mother Louise de Savoie, 97; and Marie Antoinette as Queen, 333–34, 343, 363; and marriage of Marguerite de Navarre, 99; and monarch’s administration, 8; and Napoleon Bonaparte, 419; and Orleans branch of royal family, 436; and painting of Eugène Delacroix, 439; and patronage of writers, 25–26, 91–92, 99, 121, 123, 176, 377; and Philippe d’Orleans, 340; power of, 203; and problems with issues raised by ancient works, 288; and proposals for Reform, 100; and protection of the court and aristocracy for philosophes, 376–77; and the Restoration, 428, 432; and royal council’s problems with Diderot’s Encyclopédie, 374; and royal permission for theater, 362, 364; and the seventeenth century, 11–12, 178–80, 203; and the sixteenth century, 119, 120–21, 132; and social order, 4, 28, 100, 179–80; and Tartuffe (Molière), 178–80; and theater, 178–180; and Turkish royal court, 338; and Of Voluntary Servitude (La Boétie), 160. See also absolutism; class; England; François I; Louis X
IV
Montaigne, Michel de: as adviser to Henri of Navarre, 161; ancestral home of, 160; and anthropology, 164, 168; and the body, 166, 167; career of, 9, 25, 159, 160; and classical culture, 156, 158–59, 161, 162–67; and criticism, 39; and customs and cultures, 155, 157–58, 164, 257; death of, 162; and death of friend Etienne de La Boétie, 159–160, 161; education of, 158–59, 166; ego of, 230; and Epicureanism, 230; and essay “Apology for Raymond Sebond,” 165; and essay “Des Cannibales,” 3, 96, 257; and essay “Of Books,” 166; and essay “Of Friendship,” 160; and essay “Of Physiognomy,” 166; Essays of, 68, 155–62, 408; and essay “The Apology for Raymond Sebondus,” 159; and ethics, 155, 164, 165–66; and the everyday world, 167–68; and the familiar letter, 161; father of, 158, 159; and form of the essay, 161–62, 165; and French language, 23, 158; and humanism, 157, 158–59, 162, 166, 167–68; and importance of conversation, 166, 167; and inversion, 257; and judgment, 162, 164, 165, 165–66, 167; and knowledge of Latin, 158, 161; and limits of knowledge, 164–65; literary personality of, 155, 157, 158, 159, 165; as mayor, 160, 166; as a modern, 157, 164; and moral philosophy, 158, 164–65; and myth of “noble savage,” 257; and philosophy, 130, 155–58, 159, 161–68, 257; as a political mediator, 160–61, 166; and prose style, 102, 152, 161–63, 168; and Pyrrhonism of Sextus Empiricus, 159; religion of, 165; and role of the face (countenance), 166, 167; and the self, 161, 165, 167–68, 241, 518; and skepticism, 157, 159, 168, 230; and sung poetry, 125; and toleration of ambiguity, 85, 164, 168; as a transitional figure, 157; and Travel Journal from Roman trip, 160; and Wars of Religion, 7, 156–57, 160–61; writers influenced by, 168
Moore, George, 617–18
moralists: and adventures of the self, 232; and brevity of writing forms, 238; and Caractères (La Bruyère), 248; and cultural authority, 234; and the eighteenth century, 229–30; and human excesses, 231; and illusions about oneself, 235; and La Fontaine, 230, 231–32; and life after death, 248; and moralist writers, 230, 232, 236, 248; and moralist writing, 229, 230, 248; and people’s motivations, 232, 236; and power of imagination, 235, 237, 239; and Saint-Evremond, 233; and self in society, 236; and self-love, 231, 236; and truths of living, 234
More, Thomas, 54, 84, 85
Moriae encomium (Praise of Folly) (Erasmus), 48, 55
Musset, Alfred de, 16, 17, 28; and La confession d’un enfant du siècle (Confessions of a Child of the Century), 441, 448; and play Lorenzaccio, 440; and roman personnel, 595; and Romantic movement, 448
Nadja (Breton), 554–56
Napoleon: and censorship, 37, 38; and court patronage, 27; and women’s rights, 30
nation: and canon of the national classics, 9; and censorship during a national crisis, 38; and centralized state formation, 22; and communication between francophone nations, 24, 646; and conservative nationalism, 12; cultural life of, 29, 36; and French nationality, 637; and imperial competition, 147; and leaders, 156; literary excellence as related to power of, 274; moral norms of, 284; and national identity, 21; and national language, 640, 641; and national literary culture, 7, 9, 11, 12–13, 14, 274; and national literature, 46, 147; and national security, 100; and nation-state, 11, 113; and patronage of writers, 25–27; and Pléiade poets, 68; power of, 270; and Proust’s writing, 527; and relation with literature, 14, 26, 38, 270; and Ronsard’s defense of religion and nation, 134; and Ronsard’s golden-age renewal, 113, 117, 121; and Jean Vilar’s Théâtre national populaire, 34; and Voltaire’s funeral, 9–10
national literature: and alexandrine verse form, 127; and antiquity, 141; and competition between traditions, 140, 141, 143, 144; and cyclical process of competition, 143, 147; and French poetry, 137, 140, 144; and French Renaissance, 141; as a hybrid of forerunners, 144; international nature of, 144; and national language, 23, 132
naturalism: and Gassendi, 230; and illusion of reality, 171–72, 174–75; and literary criticism, 41; and Molière, 173–74, 182; and natural limits, 171; and period of “nature” for theater, 172; and Racine, 191, 198–99, 205–6, 208; and reconciliation of Epicurean naturalism with Christian principles, 230
nature: and Atala (Chateaubriand), 504; and botany, 409–10; and Les jardins, ou l’art d’embellir les paysages (Gardens, or the Art of Embellishing the Landscape), 503–4; and metaphor of self-portraiture, 393; in relation to man, 395, 397; Rousseau’s descriptions of, 394, 410; Rousseau’s philosophy of, 405; and state of nature, 393–98; and surnaturalisme (supernaturalism), 471. See also Char, René
nausée, La (Nausea) (Sartre): and adventures, 604–5, 606, 612; and author Sartre, 630; and bad faith, 608, 612; and contrasting attitudes to the sky, 598; and Cretan Liar paradox, 612; and diary form, 595, 596, 597, 599, 606–7; and existential reality, 607, 609; and feeling of nausea, 601, 602–3, 609–10; and first-person narrator, 595, 596; hero of, 13, 595, 596, 602–8, 610, 611–12; and importance of stories, 603–6; and language, 607, 608, 609, 610; and metaphor, 598–99, 601, 608–9; and music, 612; and narrative as part of bourgeois culture, 613; original title of, 536; publication year of, 595, 599, 600; readership of, 599; and Russian Formalists, 608; and tension between living and telling, 611; and time, 605, 607, 610
negritude: and Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (Notebook of a Return to the Native Land), 581; and Aimé Césaire, 647; Césaire’s questioning of, 575, 589; and “Discours sur la négritude”(“Discourse on Negritude”) (Césaire), 575–76, 583; and journal L’Etudiant Noir (The Black Student), 576; and Leopold Senghor, 647
neveu de Rameau, Le (Rameau’s Nephew) (Diderot): and anti-philosophes, 387–88; and dialogue form, 383; and eighteenth-century Parisian culture, 389; and figure of the philosophe, 381, 384–89; framing narrative of, 384–86; and Goethe’s Rameaus Neffe, 382, 383, 389; and jokes, 383, 387; and label of philosophe, 385–89; and mimes, 383–84, 388; narrator of, 384–86, 388–89; and the pauvre diable (poor devil), 389; and posterity, 381, 383; posthumous publishing of, 371, 383; and revenge on Palissot, 384; and satire, 383, 384, 389; secret existence of, 382; and social codes, 385, 389; and space of the cafe, 386, 387; and title Satire seconde (Second satire), 383; translations of, 382–83, 389
New Criticism, 22, 29, 38
newspapers: and absence of photo from Gallimard’s Marianne, 540 fig. 1; and elections of 1824, 445–46; and fiction, 27, 213, 226, 464; Le Figaro, 515–16; L’Humanité, 549; and media in the 1930s, 535; Mercure Galant, 213, 226; and sensational serials, 27, 464; and social realities, 45; Le Temps, 522, 523, 529
Nietzsche, Friedrich: and Duthuit’s journal Transition, 630; and language, 460; and moralists, 231; and Will to Power, 229; work of, 168, 496
novel: and adultery, 462, 464–65, 467; and American novelists, 518; and anglophone reader, 102; and architecture, 313, 317–19, 322–23; and aristocratic spaces, 316, 322; and bad faith, 610–11; and Balzac’s La comédie humaine, 415; and Samuel Beckett, 14; and the bildungsroman, 303, 415, 417, 418, 420, 429, 432, 433n1; and the boudoir or bedroom, 312–21, 324–27; and Candide (Voltaire), 303, 309; comic novels, 254, 295, 296, 302, 383; and conversations, 213, 226–27; and Corinne, ou l’Italie (Staël), 330; and crime novels, 548; and Delphine (Staël), 342; and Assia Djebar, 14; and L’écume des jours (Vian), 599; and the eighteenth century, 312–28, 342, 353, 385; and emotions, 313, 315, 320–21, 342, 343; and enigma of love, 326–27; and enigma of the woman, 326–27; epistemic novels, 253; epistolary novel, 206, 312, 317, 318–24, 327, 342–43; and era of suspicion, 600–601; and experiments of Maurice Blanchot, 14; as favored by Caribbean writers, 589; and first-person narrator, 239, 312, 314; Flaubert’s elevation of, 451–52; and Flaubert’s style, 10–11, 451–52, 461; and Félicité de Genlis, 337; and hierarchy of genres, 44; and historical subject matter, 214–17; and identification, 204; inclusiveness of, 521; and indecency, 77–78, 464, 514, 515; and interiority, 327; and interiorization, 312–13, 315, 316; and James Joyce, 517, 519; and Madame de Lafayette, 206, 212–13, 216–18; and Marie Leprince de Beaumont, 342; and libertine novel, 313, 315–20, 324–27; and marriage, 212, 21
7, 320, 321–22, 324, 462, 467; and Mémoire de Madame de Valmont (Gouges), 334; and memoir forms, 314–17, 342, 595; and metafiction, 521; and metaphor of stone, 601, 602, 613; and modern novel, 595–613; and narration from many points of view, 547; and narrative theory, 604–5; and narrator as an exile, 262; and Nedjma (Yacine), 647; and Le neveu de Rameau (Rameau’s Nephew) (Diderot), 373, 381–89; and New Novel, 519; and the nineteenth century, 7, 217, 312, 326, 432–33, 455, 464; and the 1930s, 534, 535–36, 546–52; and the nouveau roman, 13, 600, 616; and novels of Sade, 313, 314, 324–27; picaresque, 7, 312, 314, 315, 324; plots of, 308–9, 312–13, 317–18, 343, 344; and La Princesse de Clèves (Lafayette), 101–2, 212–17, 225; and printing industry, 27, 36; and private lives of individuals, 30, 213, 315, 317–18, 321–24, 345; and private spaces, 312, 314, 315–22, 324–25; and problematic heros, 547; and Proust’s writing, 519, 528; and psychological drama, 551–52; and the psychological impulse, 518; and psychology of character in fiction, 30, 317; and public consumption of private conversation, 212, 213, 218; and Richardson’s Clarissa, 342; and Robbe-Grillet, 14, 519; and romances, 202, 215, 216, 219–20, 221, 342, 456; and roman feuilleton, 27, 34; and Rousseauist novel, 313, 320–24; and salon conversations, 215, 221; sentimental novel, 320, 327; and Madeleine de Scudéry, 202, 215; and the seventeenth century, 8, 202, 212–17; and Simenon’s crime novels, 536; and Tencin’s Mémoires du comte de Comminge, 342; and use of je (I), 529–30; and vraisemblance (verisimilitude), 225, 343; women as readers of, 30; and women’s bodies, 313, 314–15; and women’s writing, 347. See also Balzac, Honoré de; Flaubert, Gustave; Princesse de Clèves, La (Lafayette); women’s writing
On the Sublime (Longinus), 282–83
Oraison à nostre seigneur Jesus Christ (Prayer to Our Lord Jesus Christ) (Marguerite de Navarre), 60
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